Methods and animal model for analyzing age-related macular degeneration

ABSTRACT

Methods for testing candidate drugs for treatment of age-related macular degeneration are provided. Ccl2-deficient, and Ccr2-deficient mice are used to determine the effect of candidate drugs and treatments on development of age-ralated macular degeneration. Also provided is a Ccl2-deficient, Ccr2-deficient dual knockout mouse, which is a useful animal model for age-related macular degeneration.

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. provisional application Serial No. 60/422,096, filed Oct. 30, 2002, incorporated herein in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The invention relates to methods of determining the pathology of age-related macular degeneration and methods of testing treatment protocols and candidate drugs for age-related macular degeneration. More particularly, the invention relates to use of Ccl2-deficient, Ccr2-deficient, or both Ccl2 and Ccr2-deficient mice to analyze the pathology and treatment of age-related macular degeneration and test candidate drugs for treatment of age-related macular edema.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the principal cause of legal blindness in the United States and Western Europe. It affects over 11 million people in this country alone, and with the aging population will exact an even greater toll. The earliest visible abnormality in AMD is the accumulation of drusen (Gass, J. D. (1972) Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 70, 409-36.), lipoproteinaceous deposits between the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and Bruch's membrane, the extracellular matrix between the RPE and the underlying choroid. Drusen are a significant risk factor for progression to choroidal neovascularization (CNV), the principal cause of vision loss in AMD (Macular Photocoagulation Study Group (1997) Arch Ophthalmol 115, 741-7). There is no animal model of drusen resembling that of patients with AMD. Drusen-like deposits in elderly primates (Hope, et al., (1992) Br J Ophthalmol 76, 11-6.) are dissimilar to human drusen both in ultrastructural morphology and biochemical composition (Hirata, A. & Feeney-Burns, L. (1992) Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 33, 2079-90; Mullins, R. F. & Hageman, G. S. (1997) in Degenerative Retinal Diseases, ed. LaVail, M. (Plenum Press, New York), pp. 1-10.). Attempts to create a murine model of drusen by high fat diet, disrupting the apolipoprotein E gene, inducing protoporphyria (Gottsch et al., (1993) Arch Ophthalmol 111, 126-9.), accelerating senescence (Majji, et al., (2000) Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41, 3936-42), or combinations of the above (Dithmar et al., (2001) Arch Ophthalmol 119, 1643-9) have not succeeded in creating drusen.

[0004] The biogenesis of drusen involves RPE dysfunction, impaired digestion of photoreceptor outer segments, and subsequent debris accumulation (Hageman, et al.,. (2001) Prog Retin Eye Res 20, 705-32). The presence of complement C5, immunoglobulins, apolipoprotein E, vitronectin, and clusterin in human drusen (Loffler, et al., (1986) Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 224,493-501; Hageman, G. S., et al., (1999) FASEB J 13, 477-84; Hageman, G. S. & Mullins, R. F. (1999) Mol Vis 5, 28; Johnson, et al., (2000) Exp Eye Res 70, 441-9; Mullins et al., (2000) FASEB J 14, 835-46; and Anderson, et al., (2001) Am J Ophthalmol 131, 767-81) suggests that focal concentration of these materials may produce a powerful chemotactic stimulus for leukocytes, possibly acting via a complement cascade (Killingsworth, et al., (2001) Exp Eye Res 73, 887-96). Consistent with this, macrophages appear to preferentially engulf the wide-banded collagen of basal deposits in patients with AMD, suggesting a role in drusen clearance (Loffler, K. U. & Lee, W. R. (1986) Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 224, 493-501; Killingsworth, et al., (1990) Eye 4, 613-21; Penfold, P. L., et al., (1985) Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 223, 69-76; and van der Schaft, et al., (1993) Br J Ophthalmol 77, 657-61). Laser photocoagulation induced regression of drusen in humans (Ho, et al., (1999) Ophthalmology 106, 1367-73; and Olk, et al., (1999) Ophthalmology 106, 2082-90) is believed to result from recruitment of macrophages that resorb these deposits (Duvall, J. & Tso, M. O. (1985) Arch Ophthalmol 103, 694-703).

[0005] The lack of a faithful animal model of AMD has hampered both the study and treatment of age-related macular degeneration. Thus, there is a need for a faithful animal model of drusen development and accumulation to provide mechanistic insights into the development of AMD and assist in evaluating candidate drugs for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0006] In one aspect of the invention there is provided a method for testing a candidate drug for treatment or prevention of age-related macular degeneration comprising administering the candidate drug to a Ccl2-deficient, Ccr2-deficient- or a Ccl2-deficient and -Ccr2-deficient mouse and analyzing the eye of the mouse for development or regression of drusen and/or lipofuscin accumulation therein, for affect of the candidate drug on Bruch's membrane and/or choroidal neovascularization of the eyes of the mouse.

[0007] There is also provided a method of screening a test compound for potential utility for treatment of age-related macular degeneration, comprising: (a) providing a mouse comprising a disrupted Ccl2 and/or CCR2 gene, wherein the mouse is homozygous for the disrupted gene or genes, and wherein the mouse exhibits drusen and/or lipofuscin deposits, retinal degeneration, and/or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye at about nine to twenty-four months of age compared to a wild-type mouse that does not have the disrupted gene; (b) administering the test compound to the mouse; (c) determining the effect of the test compound on drusen, lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the mouse; and (d) correlating the effect of the test compound on drusen, lipofuscin accumulation, retinal degeneration, and/or choroidal neovascularization with a potential utility to treat age-related macular degeneration.

[0008] In another aspect of the invention there is provided a method of monitoring the effects of expression of a Ccl2 gene in at least one eye of a Ccl2−/− mouse comprising (1) introducing a plurality of stem cells obtained from a wild type mouse into the Ccl2−/− mouse to obtain a transplanted mouse, wherein said stem cells express wild type Ccl2; and (2) observing at least one eye of the transplanted mouse for the effect of the wild type Ccr2 gene expression on drusen or lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the transplanted mouse. There is also provided a method of a method of monitoring the expression of a Ccr2 gene in at least one eye of a Ccr2−/− mouse comprising (1) introducing a plurality of stem cells obtained from a wild type mouse into the Ccr2−/− mouse to obtain a transplanted mouse, wherein said stem cells express wild type Ccr2; and (2) observing at least one eye of the transplanted mouse for the effect of the wild type Ccr2 gene expression on drusen or lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the transplanted mouse. There is also provided a method of monitoring the effects of expression of a Ccl2 gene, Ccr2 gene or both in at least one eye of a Ccl2 deficient, Ccr2 deficient mouse comprising (1) introducing a plurality of stem cells obtained from a wild type mouse into the Ccl2 deficient, Ccr2 deficient mouse to obtain a transplanted mouse, wherein said stem cells express wild type Ccl2 and Ccr2; and (2) observing at least one eye of the transplanted mouse for the effect of the wild type Ccl2 and/or Ccr2 gene expression on drusen or lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the transplanted mouse.

[0009] In a further aspect of the invention there is provided a Ccl2-deficient/CCR2-deficient dual knockout mouse.

[0010] The present invention also provides a method of identifying mutations in the Ccl2 gene, Ccr2 gene or both comprising (1) obtaining an AMD DNA library or genomic DNA from a blood sample of an AMD patient; (2) screening the AMD DNA library or genomic DNA for sequences that hybridize under high stringency conditions to a wild type Ccl2 gene, Ccr2 gene, or both; and (3) sequencing the sequences that hybridize to determine the identity of any mutations contained therein.

[0011] In a further aspect of the invention there are provided expression vectors comprising SEQ ID NO. 9 and/or SEQ ID NO. 10.

[0012] In yet a further aspect of the invention there is provided a method of screening for mutations that potentially cause or affect the development of AMD in a human comprising (1) obtaining an AMD DNA library or genomic DNA from a blood sample of an AMD patient; (2) screening the AMD DNA library or genomic DNA for sequences that hybridize under high stringency conditions to a wild type C5 receptor gene or C5a receptor gene; (3) sequencing the sequences that hybridize to determine the identity of any mutations contained therein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0013]FIG. 1. Ccl2^(−/−) and Ccr2^(−/−) mice develop early AMD. (a) Fundus photo of 15-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. Inset shows higher magnification. (b) Drusen deposits in knockout mice increase with age (n=4). (c) Collagen and elastin fibers (asterisks) of thickened Bruch membrane (indicated by bracket) in 9-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse are disrupted, and choriocapillaries are highly fenestrated (arrowheads). (d) Bruch membrane is thickened in 10- to 12-month-old knockout mice (n=5). Asterisk P<0.05. (e) TIMP-3 (red) immunoreactivity in RPE and Bruch membrane (BM) of 14-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. There was no staining in photoreceptors (PR) or choroid (CH). (f) Lipofuscin autofluorescence (red) in light micrograph of RPE (arrow) of 15-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. (g) Lipofuscin granules (arrows) in electron micrograph of 15-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. (h) MALDI spectrum of RPE of 12-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse, showing A2E signal. NPP, N-perfluoroalkyl pyridine. Scale bar =0.5 μm (c), 50 μm (e), 10 μm (f), or 2 μm (g).

[0014]FIG. 2. Ccl2^(−/−) and Ccr2^(−/−) mice develop retinal degeneration. a, Fundus of an 18-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) mouse shows geographic atrophy (arrows). b,c, Electron micrographs show healthy photoreceptor cell bodies in 14-month-old wild-type mouse (b) and attenuated photoreceptors with pyknotic nuclei (arrows) in 16-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse (c). d,e, Orderly arrays of photoreceptor outer segments in 14-month-old wild-type mouse (d) and marked degeneration and segments (asterisk) with pigment-laden RPE cells (arrows) amidst disorganized tissue in 16-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse (e). f, RPE of 16-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse shows marked vacuolization (black arrows), degenerated nucleus (black asterisk), and few pigment granules (white arrow). Choroid is filled with abundant melanocytes (white asterisks) but no choriocapillaris vessels. g,h, Retina in Ccl2^(−/−) mouse outside these atrophic areas contains normal photoreceptor cell bodies (g) and outer segments (h). Scale bar 10 μm (b,c,f,g) and 5 μm (d,e,h).

[0015]FIG. 3. Ccl2^(−/−) and Ccr2^(−/−) mice develop neovascular AMD and overexpress VEGF in RPE. a-c, Electron micrograph in 20-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse shows dilated choriocapillaries (CC) inserting processes (blue arrows) into Bruch's membrane (BM), with fragmented collagen and elastin layers (asterisks) of BM in a 20-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. Inner BM (white arrowheads) is intact whereas outer BM (black arrowheads) is breached by choriocapillary processes (blue arrows) and fractures (red arrows). Higher magnification of insets (white area-b and black area-c) shows breaks (red arrows) in outer BM and endothelial processes (blue arrows) inserted into BM, disrupting outer collagenous (black asterisk) and elastin and inner collagenous layers (white asterisks), and large fenestrae (arrowheads) (c). d-f, CNV in 24-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) mouse where an endothelial cell (E) and fibrocytes (asterisks) invade sub-RPE space through a defect in BM (arrowheads), disrupting overlying photoreceptors (PR). Higher magnification of insets shows (e) fibrocytes (F) invading BM and disrupting overlying RPE (r) extracellular matrix, and (f) an endothelial cell (E) and fibrocyte processes (asterisks) that have broken through a discontinuity in BM (arrowheads) to displace an RPE cell (R) from its intact monolayer (r). VEGF staining (blue) is minimally present in RPE of 18-month-old wild-type (g) but markedly expressed in RPE and choroid of 18-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse (h). Scale bars 2 μm (a,e,f), 1 μm (b,c), 10 μm (d), and 100 μm (g,h). i-l, Intrachoroidal neovascularization leaks indocyanine green but not fluorescein. i, Late phase (12 min) fluorescein angiogram corresponding to area in a-c shows no leakage (arrow) in the region whereas j-l , indocyanine green angiography reveals a focal area (arrow) of hyperfluorescence that increases over time (j-3 min, k-6 min, 1-10 min). m,n, Choroidal neovascularization leaks fluorescein. m, Fluorescein angiography shows focal early (2 min) hyperfluorescence (m) that increases both in intensity and area in the late (9 min) frame (n) corresponding to region in d-f.

[0016]FIG. 4. Complement proteins and IgG deposition in Ccl2^(−/−) and Ccr2^(−/−) mice, and C5a and IgG stimulate Ccl2 and VEGF secretion in RPE cells and CEC. a, Complement C5 (blue) staining in RPE and choroid (CH) of 18-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) mouse. b, IgG staining (blue) in choroid and RPE in 14-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. c, Colocalization of complement C3c (red) and IgG (green) around choroidal vessel (V) wall and in RPE of 14-month Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. Merged picture shows yellow costaining. d, Vitronectin immunoreactivity in RPE and choroid of 18-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) mouse. e, CD46 staining in RPE of 14-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. f, Serum amyloid P component staining in RPE and choroid of 14-month Ccl2^(−/−) mouse. RPE, asterisks. Choroid, CH. Scale bar 100 μm (a,b), 25 μm (c), 50 μm (d-f). g, Western blot. RPE and choroid lysates from 6-month-old wild-type (Young WT), 18-month-old wild-type (Old WT), 6-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) (Young CCL2), 16-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) (Old CCL2), 6-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) (Young CCR2), and 18-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) (Old CCR2) mice were analyzed by antibody against mouse IgG. A 23 kD reactive fragment corresponding to IgG light chain was identified. h, Ccl2 release at 24 h from C5a-stimulated RPE cells and IgG-stimulated choroidal endothelial cells (CEC). i, C5a and IgG upregulate RPE secretion of VEGF at 8 h. Asterisks P<0.05.

[0017]FIG. 5. Ccl2 overexpression and macrophage infiltration in aged wild-type mice. Ccl2 fluorescence (blue) is not observed in 4-month-old wild-type (a) but marked immunoreactivity is present in RPE and choroid of 12-month-old wild-type mouse (b). Cluster of F4/80 positive (blue) macrophages in choroid of 12-month-old wild-type (c) but not in 16-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) mouse (d). Scale bar 150 μm (a,b) and 15 μm (c,d). e, Percentage of choroidal cells expressing F4/80 (macrophages) in young (3-month-old; white bars) and old (12-month-old; black bars) wild-type and knockout mice. n=4. Asterisk P<0.01. f, Western blot. RPE and choroid lysates from 6-month-old wild-type (Young WT), 18-month-old wild-type (Old WT), 6-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) (Young CCL2), 16-month-old Ccl2^(−/−) (Old CCL2), 6-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) (Young CCR2), and 18-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) (Old CCR2) mice were analyzed by antibody against mouse C5aR. A 50 kD reactive fragment corresponding to a reduced C5a receptor fragment was identified.

[0018]FIG. 6. Macrophages are immobilized by, adhere to, and degrade C5 and IgG. a, Migration of wild-type peritoneal macrophages, toward Ccl2, across membranes coated with CIV and BSA, C5a, or IgG. * P<0.05, # P<0.01 compared with BSA. n=3. b, Adhesion of wild-type peritoneal macrophages to slides coated with CIV and C5a or IgG. * P<0.05, # P<0.01 compared to BSA. n=3. c,d, Choroidal macrophages of 12-month-old wild-type mice clear C5 and IgG in situ. Quantitation shows significantly less C5 (c) and IgG (d) immunoreactivity in sections from 12-14-month-old knockout mice incubated with macrophages (Mφ) compared with sections without macrophages. * P<0.05, # P<0.01. n=4-7. e-g, Confocal images from 12-month-old Ccr2^(−/−) mouse eye section incubated with wild-type choroidal macrophages for 2 h. An F4/80 positive (blue) macrophage adheres to the section (e). IgG-immunoreactive material (red) (f) seems closely associated with and engulfed by macrophage in the merged image (g). Scale bar 15 μm.

[0019]FIG. 7A-D is the nucleotide sequence of the human Ccl2 gene (variants, promoter, and enhancer regions) (SEQ ID NO. 1-4).

[0020]FIG. 8A-D is the nucleotide sequence of the human Ccr2 gene (variants, isoforms, promoter region) (SEQ ID NO. 5-8)

[0021]FIG. 9 is the nucleotide sequence of the human C5 receptor gene.

[0022]FIG. 10 is the nucleotide sequence of the human C5a receptor gene.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0023] The inventors have discovered two strains of genetically modified mice that develop many features of AMD as they age. Elderly mice (9 - 24 months) deficient in the gene for monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (Ccl2, formerly referred to as MCP-1) (Lu, B et al., (1998) J Exp Med 187, 601-8) or its cognate receptor CC chemokine receptor-2 (Ccr2) (Kuziel, et al., (1997) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94, 12053-8.) develop drusen, lipofuscin, and thickened Bruch's membrane (the extracellular matrix between the RPE and choroid), the earliest manifestations of AMD in humans, as well as intrachoroidal neovascularization. They also develop degeneration of the outer neural retina, which is seen in many patients with AMD (Green, W. R. & Enger, C. (1993) Ophthalmology 100, 1519-35). These pathologies are absent in age-matched wild-type mice and several other knockout strains of mice.

[0024] The present inventors have discovered that the development of drusen is more pronounced in the Ccl2 mice in comparison to the Ccr2 mice. Also, the accumulation of drusen occurs earlier in the Ccl2 mice. However, Ccr2−/− mice also display evidence of drusen on fundus examination (FIG. 1). Just as Ccl2 deficient mice, Ccr2-deficient mice also exhibit phenotypic variation: some have the discrete hard drusen, while others have confluent drusen.

[0025] The subretinal deposits observed in the Ccl2 and Ccr2 mice have ophthalmoscopic and angiographic (FIG. 1) characteristics similar to drusen in AMD. Some deposits are discrete while others are confluent like hard or soft drusen, respectively, in patients with AMD (FIG. 1). The deposits are histologically similar to the human counterpart and absent in wild-type mice (FIG. 1). Bruch's membrane is visibly thickened in the knockout mice as in AMD. The choroid is markedly hypervascular and thickened, resembling the histologic appearance of intrachoroidal neovascularization (FIG. 3a-c). The outer nuclear layer of the neural retina is markedly attenuated, and photoreceptor inner & outer segments are nearly absent in many regions of the retina (FIG. 2), as seen in human AMD in regions of RPE cells compromised by drusen.

[0026] RPE cells of the knockout mice are engorged with lipofuscin (FIG. 1g), autofluorescent lysosomal storage bodies abundant in patients with AMD. Basal membranogranular deposits, the earliest pathological changes in AMD (Green et al., (1993) Ophthalmology 100, 1519-35; and Green, et al., (1977) Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 75, 180-254), are seen in Ccl2 -/- mice (FIG. 1). Bruch's membrane was markedly thickened and internally fragmented in these mice, with disruption of the collagen and elastin layers (FIG. 4d). The average thickness of Bruch's membrane in nine month-old knockout mice (1.8 μm) is significantly higher than in wild-type mice at the same age (0.45 μm). By comparison, in humans with AMD, the average thickness of Bruch's membrane is approximately 3 μm (Ramrattan, et al., (1994) Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 35, 2857-64). Lipofusin granules, autofluorescent lysosomal residual bodies that accumulate with age in RPE cells of human, have been implicated in AMD development (Delori et al., 2000) and are found in Ccl-2−/− mice in an age dependent fashion, as is A2E, the principal fluorophore of lipofuscin (FIG. 1h).

[0027] Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is observed in Ccl2 mice. FIG. 3 shows leakage due to CNV as captured by indocyanine angiography. FIG. 3a-c are transmission electron micrographs of CNV that depicts breaks in Bruch's membrane with choroidal endothelium injecting processes through these breaks. This pathology, which is identical to the earliest event in the development of CNV in human patients with AMD, has not previously been described in a spontaneous model.

[0028] Examination of human drusen revealed the presence of C5a within the deposits. It was also found that recombinant complement 5a up-regulates the secretion of Ccl2 in human RPE cells (FIG. 4h). This may explain the presence of subretinal deposits in Ccl2 and Ccr2 deficient mice, which cannot recruit macrophages, which are thought to aid drusen clearance (Duvall and Tso, 1985). This provides a mechanistic link between drusen and macrophage recruitment, and suggests a causal link between the gene defects and the presence of drusen in these knockout mice.

[0029] The totality of the data suggests that macrophages play a critical role in drusen resorption, which is impaired in the absence of Ccl2 or its receptor Ccr2. The presence of both drusen and CNV (the respective key findings of both types (non-exudative and exudative) of macular degeneration) in these mice at an age similar to human (adjusted for species longevity) makes this an attractive model for investigating AMD and the role of senescence. This model not only provides evidence for a macrophage role in drusen clearance, but also provides a powerful platform to study the molecular etiology of AMD and the effect of candidate drugs or treatments on the development or progression of AMD.

[0030] Current animal models of CNV (the neovascular form of AMD that accounts for over 80% of visual loss in patients with AMD) relying on laser injury to fracture Bruch's membrane or viral transfection of VEGF into RPE cells, although useful for experimental study, are poor facsimiles of the human condition. Thus, particularly remarkable was the identification of CNV with frank evidence of angiographic leakage in 4 of 15 Ccl2−/− and 3 of 13 Ccr2−/− mice older than 18 months, and in none of 16 age-matched wild-type mice. This frequency of conversion to the neovascular stage is comparable to the rate of progression from drusen to CNV in humans with AMD1. At earlier stages (15-19 months), CNV had breached the outer, but not inner, aspect of Bruch's membrane (intrachoroidal neovascularization), showing angiographic leakage of indocyanine green but not fluorescein (FIG. 3a-c, i-l). This nascent angiogenesis later (18-27 months) completely breached Bruch's membrane, causing RPE and photoreceptor disruption due to the accumulation of subretinal fluid leakage from these immature vessels, which was visible on fluorescein angiography (FIG. 3d-f, m, n). It is shown in FIG. 3 that VEGF was overexpressed in the RPE in senescent Ccl2 or Ccr2 deficient, but not age-matched wild-type, mice (FIG. 3g,h), consistent with its putative role as the angiogen driving CNV.

[0031] Recent evidence suggests that complement activation and immune complex deposition occur in eyes of humans with AMD. (Mullins, et al., FASEB J 14, 835-846 (2000); Johnson, et al., Exp Eye Res 70, 441-449 (2000); and Anderson et al., Am J Ophthalmol 134, 411-431 (2002). The deposition of many of these proteins in aging Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− mice was observed in the present studies. Complement component C5 (FIG. 4a), immunoglobulin G (IgG) (FIG. 4b,c,g), the complement regulatory proteins vitronectin (Vn) and CD46 (membrane cofactor protein) (FIG. 4d,e), serum amyloid P component (SAP), a potential activator of the complement cascade (FIG. 4f), and advanced glycation endproducts (AGE) (data not shown) were present in RPE or choroid of both strains of knockout mice, but not age-matched wild-types, similar to their distribution in eyes with AMD. Colocalization of IgG and C3c in choroidal vessel walls (FIG. 4c) not only suggests the presence of immune complexes, but also reflects ongoing immune deposit formation because C3c, a split-product of surface bound C3b, is cleared within hours. The joint presence of CD46, a membrane-bound regulator that facilitates inactivation of the activated complement components C3b/C4b, and vitronectin, a fluid-phase regulator that binds to the terminal complement complex to regulate complement-mediated lysis, along with localization of complement intermediates suggests that complement activation occurs to completion. These deposits were identified in 6 of 7 Ccl2−/− and 4 of 6 Ccr2−/− mice as young as 6 months of age, predating the changes visible on fundus examination, consistent with a potential causal role. Such deposits were not identified in wild-type mice.

[0032] In other immune complex deposition disorders, it has been postulated that these proteins serve as an inflammatory nidus by inciting macrophage recruitment through Fc and complement receptor binding, triggering humoral activation and phagocytosis. Consistent with this hypothesis, it is shown herein that Ccl2 secretion by human RPE and choroidal endothelial cells (CEC) was upregulated by C5a (the activated form of C5) and IgG, respectively (FIG. 4h). AGE also stimulates human RPE cell secretion of Ccl2 (ref. 27).

[0033] These data may explain the presence of subretinal deposits in Ccl2 and Ccr2 deficient mice which are impaired in recruiting macrophages requisite for clearance and degradation of drusen and other debris. Consistent with this hypothesis, there was an age-dependent increase in the expression of Ccl2 in the RPE (FIG. 5a,b), and in macrophage infiltration in the choroid of wild-type mice (FIG. 5c-e). Using flow cytometry, we found that aging was associated with a marked increase (15-fold) in the number of macrophages in the choroid of wild-types compared with only a modest (2-3 fold) increase in knockout mice (FIG. 5e). These data suggest that macrophage recruitment in aged wild-type mice is principally directed along the Ccl2-Ccr2 axis. Along with overexpression of C5 in the RPE and choroid of Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− mice, marked upregulation of the C5a receptor (C5aR) in both strains of knockout mice starting at an early age, and in wild-type mice at a later age was observed (FIG. 5f). These findings suggest that in the wild-type animal ongoing stimulation by C5a, which upregulates C5aR expression, leads to Ccl2 production and subsequent clearance of C5 and molecules tagged by this opsonin. The inability to summon sufficient numbers of or appropriately stimulated macrophages in knockout mice however, would lead to continued C5 deposition.

[0034] Both C5a and IgG stimulated human RPE cells to increase their secretion of the potent angiogenic cytokine vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (FIG. 4i), which is consistent with RPE overexpression of VEGF in senescent Ccl2 or Ccr2 deficient mice (FIG. 3h). AGE also upregulates human RPE and CEC secretion of VEGF. Together these processes may underlie the development of CNV and highly fenestrated choroidal capillaries (FIG. 1c, 3 c), both of which can be induced by VEGF in these mice.

[0035] Cell culture inserts were used to examine the migration of macrophages across a porous membrane coated with collagen IV (CIV, an abundant constituent of Bruch's membrane) in response to Ccl2. The migration of macrophages across this CIV-coated membrane when simultaneously coated with C5a or IgG was then tested to determine whether macrophages recruited to these protein-deposition sites by locally secreted Ccl2 are immobilized when they contact these proteins in the extracellular matrix. It was found that Ccl2-induced macrophage chemotaxis was inhibited both by C5a and IgG (FIG. 6a). Such immobilization indicates that macrophages adhere to C5a or IgG coated surfaces. Using CIV-coated multi-spot slides coated with C5a or IgG, it was shown that macrophages adhere to these proteins in a dose-dependent fashion (FIG. 6b). Collectively these data suggest that macrophages recruited by Ccl2 become immobilized when they contact C5a or IgG and associate with them in the extracellular matrix.

[0036] Because macrophages were immobilized by and adhered to C5 and IgG in vitro, and aging was associated with macrophage infiltration into the choroid of wild-type mice, it is possible that these cells scavenge immune complexes identified in the eyes of Ccl2−/− or Ccr2−/− mice. To test this hypothesis, macrophages were purified from aged wild-type choroids by magnetic cell sorting and plated on unfixed eye sections from Ccl2−/− or Ccr2−/− mice which were rich in C5 and IgG deposits in their RPE and choroids. Incubation with wild-type macrophages for 24 hours markedly reduced the total RPE/choroidal area occupied by C5 or IgG, compared with untreated sections (FIGS. 6c,d). Within 2 hours, macrophages were spread out over the tissue and intimately associated with protein deposits (FIG. 6e-g). These results indicate that macrophages clear C5 and IgG deposits in situ and assign a pivotal role for macrophage deficiency in the accumulation of complement components and immunoglobulins in Ccl2−/− or Ccr2−/− mice.

[0037] The present invention provides the first animal model of AMD that recapitulates the key elements of the human condition in senescent mice lacking the macrophage chemoattractant Ccl2 or its cognate receptor Ccr2. The presence of similar pathology in two ligand/receptor strains that are defective in induced macrophage trafficking strengthens the hypothesis that macrophage dysfunction plays a role in its pathogenesis. The accumulation of several complement components, complement regulatory proteins, and IgG in these mutant mice, as in humans with AMD, suggests that impaired macrophage recruitment allows accretion of proteins associated with complement activation and immune complex deposition. Inability to summon macrophages is thus associated with senescence-associated development of features strongly reminiscent of human AMD, corroborated by several lines of evidence. In particular the present inventors have shown that Ccl2-driven macrophages are immobilized by and adhere to C5a and IgG in vitro, and that macrophages degrade these proteins in situ. Combined with the observation of a marked deficiency of macrophages in the choroids of aged knockout mice, these data suggest that impaired macrophage mobilization in vivo leads to non-clearing of these proteins since these cells are known to scavenge immune complexes via complement opsonization in vivo.

[0038] Since deposition of complement-related proteins and IgG precedes the development of drusen and lipofuscin, it is likely that AMD-like pathology is due, at least in part, to complement activation and immune complex deposition rather than the converse. Because RPE cells in eyes with AMD that are immunoreactive for complement-related proteins and IgG exhibit anatomic prelethal signs it has been suggested that accumulation of these proteins compromises RPE function The presence of IgG along with complement C3 and C5 intermediates is strongly suggestive of the presence of immune complexes, and is consistent with the presence of circulating retinal auto-antibodies in patients with AMD. Furthermore, patients with membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, in which complement activation and immune complex deposition cause glomerular injury, develop drusen resembling AMD-associated drusen in ultrastructure and composition, including C5 and IgG deposition, as well as CNV. Collectively these findings support the concept that complement activation and immune complex deposition may injure the RPE in AMD. RPE injury, which may be manifested by secondary photoreceptor degradation, also can be triggered by excessive accumulation of lipofuscin. SAP and TIMP-3 also may impair drusen clearance by functioning as protease inhibitors. RPE overexpression of VEGF stimulated by complement components and IgG combined with fragmentation of Bruch's membrane provides an environment permissive for CNV.

[0039] The presence of both atrophic and neovascular pathologies in Ccl2−/− or Ccr2−/− mice at an age corresponding to human senescence makes these mice attractive models for investigating both early and late AMD. Because mouse retina does not contain a specialized macula, this model is not an exact replica of the human condition. However, the pathology in human AMD, while pronounced in the macular area, is not confined to this central region, and the findings observed in aged Ccl2−/− or Ccr2−/− mice closely resemble those of the clinical condition in anatomical appearance, biochemical composition, and fuictional disruption. More importantly, they define a system for molecular dissection of the determinants of AMD pathogenesis, and provide a platform to develop and validate novel therapeutic strategies and test compounds Ccl2−/−, Ccr2 −/− mice and dual knockout mice, Ccl2−/−/ Ccr2−/− mice may be used to characterize the temporal development of AMD, preferably from ages of about 9 to about 24 months by ophthalmoscopy, angiography, and histopathology, for example, as compared to wild-type age-matched mice. In characterizing the development of AMD the eyes of these mice are systematically examined at various ages, such as for example, at 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 months to characterize the temporal development of the retinal and subretinal pathology. For example, the eyes of the mice may be examined by:

[0040] 1. Clinical Retinal Evaluation—examination & fundus photography through dilated pupil, e.g., 50 degree fundus photography to quantify yellow spots (drusen);

[0041] 2. Fluorescein angiography—Staining or leakage within the eye may be identified;

[0042] 3. Histology—Paraffin embedded and frozen sections of affected eyes may be studied for morphology and biochemical composition (lipid, cholesterol, lipofuscin);

[0043] 4. Immunohistochemistry—Drusen (C5a, C5b-9, ApoE, vitronectin, clusterin staining for human correlation); Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA)+CD31 (proliferating choroidal endothelium); and/or

[0044] 5. Electron Microscopy—Morphology and morphometry of various structures, e.g., photoreceptors, RPE, Bruch's membrane (integrity and thickness), choroidal vasculature may be examined.

[0045] In one aspect of the invention, the Ccl2, Ccr2 and/or Ccl2/Ccr2 (dual knockout) knockout mice may be used to test candidate drugs for treatment of AMD. Dual knockout mice are created by a series of genetic backcrosses using the cross-backcross-intercross scheme, which is well known in the art. Ccr2−/− mice are mated with Ccl2−/− mice to yield heterozygous F1 offspring. The F1 mice are intercrossed and the progeny screened by PCR, for example, for Ccr2 and Ccl2. B1 progeny, heterozygous for Ccr2 and Ccl2 are intercrossed, and mice homozygous for both disrupted genes are selected for example, by PCR typing for continued backcrossing. Mice are genotyped by any method, such as by analyzing tail DNA samples using Southern blot strategies or by PCR analysis with multiprimer sets that amplify in the disrupted gene, transgene insert or neomycin resistance gene insert.

[0046] Candidate drugs include pharmaceutical compounds, small molecules, peptides, antibodies, antibody fragments and nucleic acids, including oligonucleotides and polynucleotides in sense or antisense orientation and aptamers. In this aspect of the invention the candidate drug is administered to the mouse orally, systemically, e.g., intravenously, intraperitoneally, intravitreously (e.g., by injection or sustained delivery implant), transsclerally or topically, and preferably by topical application to at least one eye of a test group of Ccl2 mice, Ccr2 mice, dual knockout mice or all three types of mutant mice, and the eye(s) of the treated mice are periodically examined to determine the effect of the candidate drug on drusen accumulation, lipofuscin accumulation, Bruch's membrane or any other symptomatic marker of AMD. A decrease in drusen or lipofuscin accumulation or thinning of Bruch's membrane, an affect on retinal degeneration or choroidal neovascularization, for example, is an indication of the ability of the candidate drug to effectively treat AMD.

[0047] In one embodiment of the invention, the genetic defect is treated by introducing a wild-type gene Ccl2 or Ccr2 gene into the mouse. Chemotactic deficiency in Ccl2−/− mice may be reversed by delivering a recombinant vector, such as for example an adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vector expressing the cDNA for Ccl2. Although Ccl2 can be delivered via an osmotic pump, rAAV vector administration is not only as effective as systemic administration, but also confines production and secretion of Ccl2, and is likely to restrict chemotactic activity to the eye. Reconstituting Ccl2 function via AAV transduction is also superior to systemic delivery as the former permits intra-animal inter-eye comparisons, thus providing greater statistical and biological fidelity to the hypothesis testing. Also rAAV vectors have demonstrated long-term, sustained high-level expression in the retina for two years, eliminating the need for pump replacement.

[0048] Similarly, the Ccr2 defect may be treated by administering a vector encoding wild-type Ccr2 gene to determine whether rescue of Ccr2 function prevents or causes regression of AMD in Ccr2 mice or dual knockout mice. Alternatively the Ccr2 defect may be corrected by stem cell transplantation of cells from Ccr2+/+ animals, either by adoptive transfer or following bone marrow ablation. Similarly, the Ccl2 defect may be corrected by stem cell transplantation of cells from Ccl2+/+ animals, either by adoptive transfer or following bone marrow ablation, for example.

[0049] The rAAV-vector cassette preferably includes a promoter, such as for example a chicken β-actin (CBA) promoter, which preferably is composed of an enhancer element or elements, such as a cytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate-early enhancer (381 bp) and a CBA promoter-exonl-intronl element (1,352 bp) upstream of a simian virus 40 early splice donor/splice-acceptor site, the Ccl2, gene, or both and a polyadenylation sequence, preferably the simian virus 40 polyadenylation sequence. The entire expression cassette containing the Ccl2 cDNA or Ccr2 cDNA is preferably flanked by AAV2 terminal repeats required for viral packaging. Viral vectors are packaged and purified as described (Raisler, B. J., Bems, K. I., Grant, M. B., Beliaev, D. & Hauswirth, W. W. (2002) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99, 8909-14). The CBA promoter is preferably used as it supports expression well in both RPE cells and photoreceptors (Acland et al. (2001) Nat Genet 28, 92-5).

[0050] Efficacy of transduction by the rAAV-CBA-Ccl2, -Ccr2 or vector encoding both Ccl2 and Ccr2 may be confirmed by any method including any combination of the following:

[0051] 1. In vitro expression: RPE cells harvested and cultured from eyes of wild-type and Ccl2−/− mice may be probed by PCR amplification for the presence or absence of the wild-type Ccl2 transgene or Ccr2 transgene, respectively. Wild-type RPE cells and mutant RPE cells transfected with rAAV-CBP-Ccl2, -Ccr2 or vector encoding both Ccl2 and CCR2 may be subjected to PCR amplification, and optionally ELISA of the supernatant for expression of Ccl2, which is constitutively secreted (Elner, et al., (1997) Exp Eye Res 65, 781-9).

[0052] 2. In vivo expression: The amount of ocular protein in mice expressed from the vector construct may be assayed after subretinal vector inoculation by ELISA about six weeks after injection. Approximately 10¹⁰ particles (2×10⁸ infectious units) in a volume of 1 μl of therapeutic vector is injected into one eye and the same volume of null vector in the fellow eye.

[0053] 3. AAV-CBA-Ccl2, -Ccr2 or both Ccl2 and Ccr2 is injected into eyes of Ccl2 deficient mice , preferably about eight-week-old Ccl2 deficient, Ccr2-deficient mice, or dual knockout mice, and the temporal development of retinal and subretinal lesions is compared to fellow eyes injected with null vector over 24 months with interval measurements. In addition a vector such as AAV-CBA-Ccl2, AAV-CBA-Ccr2 or both or a single vector encoding both Ccl2 and Ccr2 may be injected into eyes of one-year-old Ccl2 deficient mice, one year old Ccr2 deficient mice or dual knockout mice, and the stabilization or regression of ocular lesions evaluated in comparison to fellow eyes.

[0054] In addition Ccl2 and Ccr2 function can be reconstituted by bone marrow transplantation from Ccl2+/+ or Ccr2+/+ mice.

[0055] In another aspect of the invention, there is provided a double knockout mouse which has both the Ccl2 and Ccr2 deletions. The mouse may be generated as described above, or by any method known to the skilled practitioner. The mouse is useful for determining the pathology of age-related macular degeneration and testing candidate drugs for treatment of age-related macular degeneration.

[0056] It is also contemplated that the genes, vectors and expression vectors of the invention may be used for stem cell transplantation to restore Ccr2 function. For example, stem cells obtained from a normal mouse, i.e., containing a wild type Ccr2 gene, may be introduced either by adoptive transfer or following bone marrow ablation. For example, the normal stem cells may be introduced by intravenous injection into a Ccr2−/− mouse or other animal. The eyes of the animal receiving the stem cell transplant are then observed to determine the effect of the transplantation. Alternatively, a Ccr2−/− mouse or other animal can be subjected to bone marrow irradiation to deplete stem cells. Following ablation of the endogenous stem cells, stem cells obtained from a wild type mouse are administered to the irradiated Ccr2−/− mouse, preferably by intravenous injection. The eyes of the transplanted mouse are then observed to determine the effect of the transplantation. Similar procedures can be employed to restore Ccl2 function in a Ccl2−/− mouse or other animal.

[0057] It is also contemplated that AMD can be treated or prevented in mammals, including humans, by administering to a patient in need, a wild type Ccr2 gene, wild type Ccl2 gene or both to compensate for a defective Ccr2 gene or Ccl2 gene or both. The wild type gene can be administered by any method known in the art, such as by administering the gene(s) via an expression vector, such as a replication defective adenovirus vector, directly into the eye, via an implant or via intravenous injection. Alternatively, the wild type gene can be introduced into the eye via stem cell transplantation as described above.

[0058] It is further contemplated that wild type Ccl2 and/or Ccr2 genes or small molecules that promote the finction of Ccl2 and/or Ccr2 are used for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment or prevention of AMD in a mammal.

[0059] It is further contemplated that the genes, vectors and expression vectors, including the promoter/enhancer regions of the genes for Ccl2 and/or Ccr2 may be used in identifying mutations or polymorphisms that place people at increased or decreased risk for developing AMD. The human Ccl2 gene, its promoter and enhancer (SEQ ID NO. 1-4) and human Ccr2 gene and its promoter (SEQ ID NO. 5-8) are shown in FIGS. 7A-D and 8A-D, respectively. These sequences can be used to isolate the Ccr2 and/or Ccl2 gene from genomic DNA obtained from patients suspected of having or believed to be at risk of developing age-related macular degeneration. Also, the wild type Ccl2 and/or Ccr2 sequences or fragments thereof can be used directly or oligonucleotides based on these sequences can be generated and used to screen genomic or cDNA AMD libraries using any method known in the art. Generally, high stringency conditions are used in the screening process. Methods for screening genomic DNA and gene libraries and selection of stringency conditions are well known to those of skill in the art. See, e.g., Maniatis et al., Molecular Cloning A Laboratory Manual. The isolated genes or gene fragments can then be sequenced to determine the presence of mutations in the isolated DNA. Once specific AMD mutations or polymorphisms are identified, these mutations can be used to screen patients for the presence of the mutation.

[0060] Applicants' studies have shown that C5 and C5a accumulate in the eyes of the Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− mice with aging, and that the inability of macrophages to clear these deposits leads to macular degeneration-like changes in the mice. Thus, defects in the C5 receptor and C5a receptor genes may promote macular degeneration. Therefore, an analysis of the C5 receptor gene and C5a receptor genes in AMD patients for the presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms will confirm the role of these genes in the development of AMD. The sequence of each of the human C5 receptor and C5a receptor genes is shown in SEQ ID NO. 9 and 10, respectively. As discussed above for the Ccl2 and Ccr2 genes, the wild type C5 receptor and C5a receptor genes may be used to screen AMD libraries or genomic DNA obtained from AMD patients for the C5 receptor and C5a receptor genes therein and the genes so isolated can be characterized, by nucleotide sequencing to determine the presence or absence of mutations or polymorphisms, for example. Also, the C5 receptor and C5a receptor genes may be cloned into an appropriate expression vector or expression vector and further characterized.

EXAMPLES

[0061] Animals: Wild-type C57BL/6 mice (Jackson Laboratories), and Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− strains, generated as described previously (Lu, et al., J Exp Med 187, 601-608 (1998); Kuziel, et al, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94, 12053-12058 (1997)) (incorporated herein by reference) and backcrossed 10 times to C57BL/6, were anesthetized by intramuscular injection of ketamine (50 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg).

[0062] Fundus photography and angiography: Photographs and angiograms performed after intraperitoneal injection of fluorescein sodium (Akom; 60 mg/kg) or indocyanine green (Sigma-Aldrich; 6 mg/kg) were captured with a TRC-501A camera (Topcon) and evaluated by two masked readers.

[0063] Immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy: Frozen sections fixed in Histochoice MB (Amresco) and blocked with 5% donkey serum (Jackson Immunoresearch) were stained with rabbit anti-mouse C3c (1:1000; gift of J. D. Lambris, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.), mouse anti-mouse C5 (1:1000; gift of J. D. Lambris), rabbit anti-human CD46 (1:500; Santa Cruz Biotechnologies), goat anti-mouse MCP-1 (15 micro g/ml; R&D Systems), goat anti-human SAP (1:500; Santa Cruz), rabbit anti-mouse TIMP-3 (1:2500; gift of B. H. F. Weber, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany), goat anti-mouse VEGF (15 micro g/ml; R&D Systems), rabbit polyclonal anti-AGE antibodies (1:1000, gift of A. Gugliucci, Touro University, Vallejo, Calif.), or goat anti-human vitronectin (1:500; Santa Cruz). Bound antibodies were detected with Cy3-conjugated goat secondaries or CyS-conjugated donkey secondaries (1:100; Jackson Immunoresearch). Alternatively sections were stained directly with FITC-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (1:100; BD Pharmingen), CyS-conjugated donkey anti-mouse IgG (1:100; Jackson lmmunoresearch) or Cy5-conjugated F4/80 (5 micro g/ml; Serotec). A “mouse-on-mouse” kit (Vector Laboratories) was used for C5 staining. Lipofuscin autofluorescence was detected through the Cy3 channel. Transmission electron microscopic studies were performed on uranyl acetate/lead citrate-stained ultrathin sections. Bruch's membrane thicknesses were measured 150 micro m from the optic nerve by averaging thinnest and thickest parts.

[0064] Western blotting: Equal amounts of total protein from RPE/choroid were resolved in SDS 4-20% polyacrylamide gradient gel and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes for western blotting with antibodies against mouse C5aR (gift of J. D. Lambris) or mouse IgG (Transduction Laboratories).

[0065] Flow cytometry: Single cell suspensions of RPE/choroids were incubated in Fc block (0.5 mg/ml; BD Pharmingen) for 15 min on ice, stained with Cy5-F4/80 antibody (1:30), and live cells were detected by gating on forward versus side scatter, followed by analysis of F4/80 in the fluorescence channel (FACScalibur, BD Biosciences).

[0066] Migration: Wild-type peritoneal macrophage migration (10,000 cells/well) toward 30 nM of mouse Ccl2 (R&D Systems) was assayed using 24-well transwell chambers (Corning) separated by a 5 micrometer polycarbonate filter coated with 50 micro g/ml collagen IV (CIV; Fluka), with or without overlay of human C5a (50 nM; Calbiochem), mouse IgG (50 micro g/well; Jackson Immunoresearch), or bovine serum albumin (BSA; 50 micro g/well; Sigma-Aldrich), by counting numbers of migrated cells after 3 hours incubation at 37 degrees C.

[0067] Adherence: Adherence of wild-type peritoneal macrophages (105 cells/spot) plated on multispot glass slides (Shandon) coated with 50 micro g/ml CIV overlaid with human C5a, mouse IgG, or BSA (0-8 micro g/spot). was quantitated using CyQuantGR (Molecular Probes) after incubation at 37 degrees C. for 1 h.

[0068] Degradation: Frozen unfixed eye sections from knockout mice were transferred to 24-well culture plates and incubated with or without wild-type (12-month-old) choroidal macrophages (10,000 cells/well), purified via magnetic cell sorting using MicroBeads conjugated with CD11b antibody (clone M1/70.15.11.5; Miltenyi Biotec), for up to 24 h at 37 degrees C. Sections were fixed with Histochoice MB, stained for C5, IgG, or F4/80, and imaged by scanning confocal microscopy. Relative areas of C5 or IgG immunoreactivity were measured for 4-7 sections using image-analysis software (Photoshop, ver. 6.0; Adobe Systems).

[0069] Cell stimulation: Serum starved human CEC (gift of D. R. Hinton, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif.) and human RPE cells were stimulated with human C5a (50 ng/ml) or immobilized human IgG (50 micro g/well; Sigma-Aldrich) after attaining 80% confluence. Ccl2 and VEGF levels measured by ELISA (R&D Systems) at 8 and 24 h after stimulation were normalized to total protein.

[0070] MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry: RPE extracts and standards of synthetic N-retinylidene -N-retinylethanolamine (A2E; gifts of E. Rodriguez-Boulan, New York University, New York, N.Y. and G. H. Travis, University of California, Los Angeles, Calif.) were dissolved in 50% methanol/50% water (Fisher Scientific), transferred to C 18 PrepSep solid phase extraction columns (Fisher), and eluted with 1 ml methanol containing 0.1 % trifluoroacetic acid (TFA; Fisher). N-perfluoroalkyl pyridine (NPP; gift of S. Rankin, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky.; 250 ng) was added to samples as an external standard. The MALDI target was prepared by adding 0.5 micro 1 sample to deposited 0.5 micro 1 matrix (alpha-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid; Sigma-Aldrich). Positive ion spectra were acquired on a Bruker Autoflex MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer (Bruker Daltonic). The A2E response (m/z 592.5) was normalized to the NPP response (m/z 576.1).

[0071] Statistics: Data are represented as the mean ±s.e.m. of at least 3 independent experiments and were compared using a two-tailed Student's t-test. The null hypothesis was rejected at P<0.05.

Example 1

[0072] Eyes of greater than 60 Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− mice and 40 age-matched wild-type mice ranging from 3 to 27 months were subjected to fundus examination. Of these, eyes from 25 Ccl2−/−, 21 Ccr2−/−, and 18 age-matched wild-type (<12 months: 6; 12-24 months: 7; >24 months: 5) mice were extensively examined histopathologically. Before 9 months of age, the fundi of Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− mice were indistinguishable from wild-type mice. Thereafter subretinal deposits with ophthalmoscopic and pathologic features of drusen in patients with AMD were observed in all mice of both knockout strains and increased in number with age as in humans (FIG. 1a, b). In contrast, no such changes were visible in wild-type mice even at 24 months of age (n=5). Bruch's membrane (the extracellular matrix between the RPE and choroid) was markedly thickened in senescent Ccl2 or Ccr2 deficient mice compared with age-matched wild-types and that its collagen and elastin layers were severely disrupted with internal fragmentation (FIG. 1c), features observed in AMD. As in patients with AMD, intense immunostaining of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP)-3, produced by the RPE and thought to contribute to thickening of Bruch's membrane, was observed in aged knockout mice (FIG. 1e). As Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− mice aged, increasing amounts of lipofuscin granules (autofluorescent lysosomal residual bodies which accumulate with age in RPE cells of humans and have been implicated in AMD development) were observed in swollen and vacuolated RPE cells (FIG. 1f, g) at 9 months and thereafter. Ultrastructural analysis of these RPE cells showed significant intracellular accumulation of dense bodies (FIG. 1h) including large ellipsoid and spherical structures of high electron density, presumably representing melanosomes and melanolipofuscin fusion particles, respectively, and numerous smaller structures of variable density representing lipofuscin granules. RPE extracts were tested for the presence of N-retinylidene-N-retinylethanolamine (A2E), the principal lipofuscin fluorophore by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. RPE extracts from 12-month-old knockouts contained 25 pmol of A2E per eye (FIG. 1i). No A2E was detected in RPE of age-matched wild-type mice. Lipofuscin accumulation is thought to promote RPE dysfunction in AMD.

Example 2

[0073] Retinal Degeneration and Choroidal Neovascularization in Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− Mice

[0074] As Ccl2−/− and Ccr2−/− mice aged, they exhibited several of the late findings seen in human AMD, including progressive outer retinal degeneration and CNV, similar to that seen in patients with late AMD. Despite evidence of RPE and choroidal pathology, differences in neural retinal morphology between knockout strains and wild-types were not observed before 16 months of age. At 16 months of age and thereafter, both knockout strains exhibited confluent areas of visible atrophy similar to “geographic atrophy” seen in advanced AMD (FIG. 2a). These areas were characterized by cell loss in the outer nuclear layer of the retina and atrophy of photoreceptor segments (FIG. 2b-e), as well as attenuation of the RPE and choriocapillaris (FIG. 2f) as in late AMD. In these regions the RPE was hypopigmented along with prominent vacuolization and degeneration of most intracellular organelles, and was devoid of basal infoldings. The choriocapillaris was nearly obliterated with few or no patent inner choroidal vessels observed in the areas corresponding to fundus atrophy. Regions outside these areas did not display such atrophy (FIG. 2g,h).

Example 3

[0075] CCR2 rescue of the ocular abnormalities in Ccr2 deficient mice is accomplished by creating chimeric mice using bone marrow transplantation (BMT). In vitro AAV transduction results in loss of stem cell activity during infection, while in vivo transduction results in non-specific and low-level target expression (only 1 per 15,000 bone marrow cells are stem cells); neither approach will guarantee sustained expression in vivo. Ccr2 −/− mice are irradiated and repopulated with bone marrow stem cells from wildtype Ccr2 +/+ mice. Ccr2 −/− mice are maintained on antibiotic-containing water for one week before irradiation. These mice are irradiated with 900 cGy from a cesium source (delivered in two equal doses of 450 cGy 3-4 hours apart), and donor bone marrow cells (1×10⁷) are injected into a tail vein. Mice are maintained on antibiotic-containing water for four weeks after transplantation. Engraftment is verified by PCR detection of the Ccr2 gene in the bone marrow of all irradiated mice. Eyes of eight-week-old chimeric mice are compared to ungrafted Ccr2 −/− mice over 24 months with interval measurements. In addition, eyes of Ccr2 −/− mice repopulated with bone marrow at one year of age are compared to ungrafted mice over the following year.

Example 4

[0076] A candidate drug for the treatment of AMD is applied to one or both eyes of a Ccl2 mouse, which was previously confirmed to have developed AMD symptoms, e.g., drusen and/or lipofuscin deposits in the eye, thickening of Bruch's membrane. Treatment is repeated at least once daily for one to several weeks. Examination of the treated eye(s) by visual and/or fundus examination through dilated pupil is carried out periodically during treatment and the effect of treatment is compared to placebo treated wild-type eyes.

1 10 1 757 DNA Homo sapiens 1 ggaaccgaga ggctgagact aacccagaaa catccaattc tcaaactgaa gctcgcactc 60 tcgcctccag catgaaagtc tctgccgccc ttctgtgcct gctgctcata gcagccacct 120 tcattcccca agggctcgct cagccagatg caatcaatgc cccagtcacc tgctgttata 180 acttcaccaa taggaagatc tcagtgcaga ggctcgcgag ctatagaaga atcaccagca 240 gcaagtgtcc caaagaagct gtgatcttca agaccattgt ggccaaggag atctgtgctg 300 accccaagca gaagtgggtt caggattcca tggaccacct ggacaagcaa acccaaactc 360 cgaagacttg aacactcact ccacaaccca agaatctgca gctaacttat tttcccctag 420 ctttccccag acaccctgtt ttattttatt ataatgaatt ttgtttgttg atgtgaaaca 480 ttatgcctta agtaatgtta attcttattt aagttattga tgttttaagt ttatctttca 540 tggtactagt gttttttaga tacagagact tggggaaatt gcttttcctc ttgaaccaca 600 gttctacccc tgggatgttt tgagggtctt tgcaagaatc attaatacaa agaatttttt 660 ttaacattcc aatgcattgc taaaatatta ttgtggaaat gaatattttg taactattac 720 accaaataaa tatatttttg tacaaaaaaa aaaaaaa 757 2 743 DNA Homo sapiens 2 agactaaccc agaaacatcc aattctcaaa ctgaagctcg cactctcgcc tccagcatga 60 aagtctctgc cgcccttctg tgcctgctgc tcatagcagc caccttcatt ccccaagggc 120 tcgctcagcc agatgcaatc aatgccccag tcacctgctg ttataacttc accaatagga 180 agatctcagt gcagaggctc gcgagctata gaagaatcac cagcagcaag tgtcccaaag 240 aagctgtgat cttcaagacc attgtggcca aggagatctg tgctgacccc aagcagaagt 300 gggttcagga ttccatggac cacctggaca agcaaaccca aactccgaag acttgaacac 360 tcactccaca acccaagaat ctgcagctaa cttattttcc cctagctttc cccagacacc 420 ctgttttatt ttattataat gaattttgtt tgttgatgtg aaacattatg ccttaagtaa 480 tgttaattct tatttaagtt attgatgttt taagtttatc tttcatggta ctagtgtttt 540 ttagatacag agacttgggg aaattgcttt tcctcttgaa ccacagttct acccctggga 600 tgttttgagg gtctttgcaa gaatcattaa tacaaagaat tttttttaac attccaatgc 660 attgctaaaa tattattgtg gaaatgaata ttttgtaact attacaccaa ataaatatat 720 ttttgtacaa aaaaaaaaaa aaa 743 3 3221 DNA Homo sapiens 3 ccgagatgtt cccagcacag ccccatgtga gagctccctg gctccgggcc cagtatctgg 60 aatgcaggct ccagccaaat gcattctctt ctacgggatc tgggaacttc caaagctgcc 120 tcctcagagt gggaatttcc actcacttct ctcacgccag cactgacctc ccagcggggg 180 agggcatctt ttcttgacag agcagaagtg ggaggcagac agctgtcact ttccagaaga 240 ctttcttttc tgattcatac ccttcacctt ccctgtgttt actgtctgat atatgcaaag 300 gccaagtcac tttccagaga tgacaactcc ttcctgaagt agagacatgc ttccaacact 360 cagaagccta tgtgaacact cagccagcaa agctgggaag tttttctctg tgaccatggg 420 ctaattggtc tccttctctg gattgtggct ttatcagata aaaacaagtg gtcatgccac 480 aggatgtcta taagcccatt gattctggga ttctatgagt gatgctgata tgactaagcc 540 aggagagact tatttaaaga tctcagcatc tttcagcttg ttaacctaga gaaaacccga 600 agcatgactg gattataaag ggaaattgaa tgcggtccac caagttcatg gtaaaggatg 660 cactaacaga ttagagagag gtttcccctg atatgaggaa aacttcttgg aagatgaggt 720 gagatggcct aggaagaaat tcctacacaa aattgcacag tctctagtcc tggaaacatt 780 ttattcattg gataagaatg gattgaggca tgagcagagg actgagacaa acacagagaa 840 gtttcaacac tggttgggga gaaaaggagt aactagtgag attcaggcag aacaagaata 900 aggctcctca agaggcacaa gcaaagcagg gctcgagttg atttgttctc tcttcatcct 960 gctttttgta attccaccag agtctgaaat gaccactcca tagagtctct gctctgggat 1020 tctccaggaa accaatatcc atcatgagac atcaagtcta gtcccaggaa gaagagattc 1080 tggaatggaa acatcctggg tgggagtctc agcacatcta ctattctgtc tgagttactg 1140 gacaaataac ttcagtttta acctaacgaa agctgggttg gttggaggac tgggcaggca 1200 gcgctggaaa gtatgtcagc accatacctg actccctgaa tgcactcaac aatgccatta 1260 ctgaccactt actagaaata aaacagtcat ttgttgaata caacccgttt ctttttacaa 1320 gtgtagtgaa aagtgttttc tttcaagaaa ccccatgcat ttatagacat tgcctcagtg 1380 accctttatg aaagaagtca ctagtctttg tatgcccatt gggcaagggc accgcaaggc 1440 tcagaaggag gaggcagtgg gctaggagaa tggagagatc agaattttaa actcagccca 1500 gccattaaca tgcctcaagt actcctatca tatttgtaag agacaacagt tcactgaaat 1560 gaattctaag gtctttgggt ttttatcagt gtgcttctgt agtttctgag gaaatctaag 1620 gcacaactga ggaatgaagt caggctttcc aattcccgaa atactcctcc actgcttact 1680 catgtccctt ggaaattaag aaggaagcca ggagaatagc tgccataacc agggatgaac 1740 ttcttgtcca ctgctgcctg ctatgctagc aacagcctcc taactcataa tgacttagcc 1800 atgaggaatg tttctagatt ctcctttagc tgtctgccca tttggaagat gctgaggaca 1860 gagagaggac ccaagcaggc aactagttgg aggacttgta cacgtttcct tccagcagta 1920 tgtcagagag gtgagcagcc cactggggac agggctgcct gggttctgtg ctcgagggga 1980 ccttgagcag gctatttaac ccttctgtgc ctcagttgcc tgatctataa catgaaaatt 2040 agcaatccct actagataaa gttggggaat ttacagagtt aatatttgta aaggtctgag 2100 aatattcctg gcagagtaag cactctgtga gtatgacact ggcatttctt ctgcagcact 2160 acatgctgtc tatgcctttg tccaagtctg aaaccctaga actcttagaa ttcagttcaa 2220 tgtttacaca atcctacagt tctgctaggc ttctatgatg ctactattct gcatttgaat 2280 gagcaaatgg atttaatgca ttgtcaggga gccggccaaa gcttgagagc tccttcctgg 2340 ctgggaggcc ccttggaatg tggcctgaag gtaagctggc agcgagcctg acatgctttc 2400 atctagtttc ctcgcttcct tccttttctg cagttttcgc ttcacagaaa gcagaatcct 2460 taaaaataac cctcttagtt cacatctgtg gtcagtctgg gcttaatggc accccatcct 2520 ccccatttgc tcatttggtc tcagcagtga atggaaaaag tgtctcgtcc tgaccccctg 2580 cttccctttc ctacttcctg gaaatccaca ggatgctgca tttgctcagc agatttaaca 2640 gcccacttat cactcatgga agatccctcc tcctgcttga ctccgccctc tctccctctg 2700 cccgctttca ataagaggca gagacagcag ccagaggaac cgagaggctg agactaaccc 2760 agaaacatcc aattctcaaa ctgaagctcg cactctcgcc tccagcatga aagtctctgc 2820 cgcccttctg tgcctgctgc tcatagcagc caccttcatt ccccaagggc tcgctcagcc 2880 aggtaaggcc ccctcttctt ctccttgaac cacattgtct tctctctgag ttatcatgga 2940 ccatccaagc agacgtggta cccacagtct tgctttaacg ctacttttcc aagataaggt 3000 gactcagaaa aggacaaggg gtgagcccaa ccacacagct gctgctcggc agagcctgaa 3060 ctagaattcc agctgtgaac cccaaatcca gctccttcca ggattccagc tctgggaaca 3120 cactcagcgc agttactccc ccagctgctt ccagcagagt ttggggatca gggtaatcaa 3180 agagagggtg ggtgtgtagg ctgtttccag acacgctgga g 3221 4 11793 DNA Homo sapiens 4 ggtacctcct ccagccttgg ccacagtgtc atccttgggc cccctaggtt tcagcctctt 60 gagtttgcac ttgcaggttt ggctgttgct ctcaaagcag gactattgca tcaacatggc 120 aggtgcagag gtcttcccgc ctcaatcgtc acccactgat ttctctgcca tggccttgaa 180 ctcaggcgac caatccagtt ggaacctccc cacactctcc gtggctaata attttggact 240 cagaagaaaa agcctcaatt tctctcctct caggaggtct cttggtcctt gagcaaatgt 300 atccatttct tctcctatct ccagtctttg ggcccccaaa ggtttttttc tccctttctc 360 caggacaatg agtgcctatt tacaagtgcc tgtttctact tgaataaggt ttctataaac 420 taagaagtgt tccttaggga cacaagtaac tggcactcct gttggaaaat gctaagatct 480 aggtcacgcg cacttccccc aacagacaca tacacacatt cacacacaca cacacacaca 540 cacacacaca cacacacaca cacacataca gcttgtctgc actctagcac tggcactgac 600 gctaacgcta taatcctggg caactttatt tccccatctt acattaagca gtggtgcagg 660 gattttcaac tctgggatct ctatcacacc tcccagctct gattgcttcc taatttacat 720 atttattgag catctgatgc taggtcctca tgctggtgat gcaggagtaa actagacaga 780 caaaagtccg tgccccacat tgtctgacac ctacacacct gctgttcgga ctccattaca 840 aacagctcca aggggaacag tgcacttgta aagtttctct cattaccatg gccacatccg 900 tgagcaataa ataagttgca tagttgaatt atttgataat gctttgtttt taactccctg 960 cacttaagtc agagatgtgt gtgctttgga aaactatttc tcctgactca ttagacaaat 1020 actatttgca tttttattca gcttccttcc tcagactcta atttacagta aaggcaagag 1080 gatttttgaa tggagccagt gctttgcaat gtggggctcc accagctagc cgactgaaat 1140 cattaataaa gaagcctttt taagtggctg aagtttcccc tttttggcat gcaacatttt 1200 gcaaccaagc ggaagaaaca tcatccgcaa agaagaatcc atgtggcccc tgaaaatcac 1260 tctctctgct acaggctccc cactccccag tgctcccctt agccctgcca ctatctctcc 1320 tccagatgga aaaagtgagg aactcaggga accaaaagtc ttgcttcttt actaatttcc 1380 ctgtctgaca ttaaatcatc ctacagttca gatatctggg ggaagtgact agagattctt 1440 gaactgttaa taattaattt aaatgatatt tgttaagaac ctacgacatg gaagatactg 1500 taccaggtgc tggggtccag catgggcaaa ggcctcaagg tggaatggag ctatggtgtg 1560 ttctggaagc agagagtggg gctgagggtg acatgaggtg aggagacagg agagggcctg 1620 gcagggtggg accttctggt gagagctggc tgctgtgtga ggagctgagg ccctggcttg 1680 attctggggt tacttctttg accttcagct ttttgtcatg ggcagacaga atggggatga 1740 aaaaaagctt aggaaatgga aacctcccta tgcattatat aataaaaatg gccaacacat 1800 tttcatagca agaaatcaca gcagaagctt gtactgggca tcaggactgt aggcatccaa 1860 tgcccagaaa ctggcatgtg ccctgggaca tcccctgaga aggcatgcca cgagccctca 1920 gactgacaca gctctttaca agttgcttac agagcactct tggtttatta attcatacaa 1980 gtctcatgac aatgtcagaa gcagctgtct tactaatccc ctttgacaga agaggcccag 2040 agaggtcaag ggacttgctc aaggccacac agctagaaag aggcagagcc aggcctttgg 2100 ccctggtgtt ctgacaccac ctggggctcc ttctgttatt ccatgctacc tcttctttct 2160 cttccgtatt cccttctcgt tcccttcctt cttgtgtctt gcttcttatc tgcctgtact 2220 tattcctgtt ggtgcctccc agctcagcca gcatagctct gtcttcaaat accccatgct 2280 tcattctggg gtcccataca cagtctgaca atcatctgag ggggctgtgg gaggacatag 2340 aaaaaataca gctttacata gaaaaaaatg caaattgtag ccaggcgcag tggctcatgc 2400 ctgtaacccc agcactttgg gaggccgagg caggtggatc acctgaggtc aggagtctga 2460 gaccagcctg gccaatgtag taaaactcct tctctactaa aaatataaaa attagccagg 2520 cgtgatgtca tgtgcctgta gtcccagcta ctcgggaggc tgaggcagga gaacctcttg 2580 aatccaggag gcgcaggttg cagtgagcag agatagtgcc actgcactcc agcctgggtg 2640 acagagtgag actctgtctc aaaaaaataa aataaaataa aaaatgcaga ctgtgattca 2700 gcaggtctgg gttgaagccc agaactctct gataaattca atggcactta actacttgga 2760 ggtcatggat gcctttgcta atctaataga agctactgac cctctctcca gaaaaatgca 2820 caaaaacata aatgtggaag acaactcctg atggatctgg gagcctatcc aagggccaca 2880 gacaagagtc ctggtctgga caaaatgagc tgctcagtat tttcccacct ggccagcatt 2940 tcctatccaa agacaaatgt taaagttgtt ctagcagagc catgcaccag cagcagtatc 3000 atcacctggg aaccggttag caatgcagaa ccgcaggccc accccaaacc tacagtcaga 3060 atctctactt tagcaagatc ctaaggagat gggtaagcac attacaattt gcaacctttg 3120 taagtttgcc caaaatgtga cccctccttc acccaccgat cgccaaggtt caaaaatctg 3180 cccaaccctt gagcccatct taaatgtacc atcacgagcc ttccctgggc ccctcagctg 3240 ggactctcac cgctctgtat ctttctggtt aatgcaatta ttctgttccc ttagatgacc 3300 ccagcacagg tgctaaagga gtcaacaaaa ggctattgtc aaaaaagtgt ttctgtctcc 3360 actccatctg atctctgttt ccctaagacc tgcccatccc cctctcccag ttcggcacct 3420 tgaccccctc atcacactgc tcaggccacc ttgtacaatg caagccccaa atgaggaaag 3480 cattttctcc cccaatgtgt aacacgaaag tgctgtagag tggctcacgc tgcctttagc 3540 ctaagaattt atttaactct tacccccaac ccacatcagt ctcctccctc tagggctcag 3600 gtgctaatct gtgagggctg gctcagaaga caatctaaag aacaagcctc ttgcttcctc 3660 aggcatcact actcctcacc accatcaccc ccacccacca actcaggcca ctactctttc 3720 tgttctcata tgctatgccc atcgccaccc ctattcccat gctcaggagt attcttggct 3780 actgcatgca attagacctg gggcagatcc aatccagaaa gcaagaaatc ttagatgctg 3840 gaagcttggg gtaagtactg atcagattta ttcctaaatt cagtcctact ttccatggat 3900 tcttacttta gcatctcttc tgaaaaggaa gcatcatgtc taattcactt ctccctccct 3960 gtgcagtcct ctacctggtg ctctgcacag ggtatgtgct aattgtatga atgttataat 4020 aaagagatag tgcagtagat gacaaagggc actacattga gagcccagaa ataagcaaac 4080 cagcacaaat gtagccattc gtcttctatc tcaccttgag cctgtcacta acctgttcat 4140 ggcctcagtc tccccatcag agaaacaggt agatggtctc taaggtctcg ttcattttct 4200 gacattctgt gaaaaattaa ggaaagattt tcatccttga caggaaaggg attgcagagt 4260 agcggccctg ggaaaatggg ctctattcta cctggagcta gcctggagga gaggccttga 4320 gtgggggttg tctagaaagg acatggtgag tgcagagcta cggtgcatct ctcttgaagg 4380 ctgagtgaag ggagcaccag caagggagcc tgcactaggt ggggagggac aagtgaaccg 4440 cagaagttgg tgggagccca ggcagtggct tcagatcttt ccagagagct cacttttact 4500 tcctcttttt ttcacccctg acactgagtg ggagtctgca gcgatgacca aggttcatgc 4560 agaggatctt agtggtgggg tcagaccccg ggaggaatga agaaagcatt attcaccaag 4620 aggagctttt ccattcttta tctatgagtt gatagagagg aggccccggg gtaactgagg 4680 attctggaca gcatcagagc attgaccctc attttcccca tagcccctct gggggccttt 4740 cccttgtgtg tccccaagcg agagtccaac caaggtttgt gccagagcct aacccaggct 4800 tgtgccgaga tgttcccagc acagccccat gtgagagctc cctggctccg ggcccagtat 4860 ctggaatgca ggctccagcc aaatgcattc tcttctacgg gatctgggaa cttccaaagc 4920 tgcctcctca gagtgggaat ttccactcac ttctctcacg ccagcactga cctcccagcg 4980 ggggagggca tcttttcttg acagagcaga agtgggaggc agacagctgt cactttccag 5040 aagactttct tttctgattc atacccttca ccttccctgt gtttactgtc tgatatatgc 5100 aaaggccaag tcactttcca gagatgacaa ctccttcctg aagtagagac atgcttccaa 5160 cactcagaag cctatgtgaa cactcagcca gcaaagctgg gaagtttttc tctgtgacca 5220 tgggctaatt ggtctccttc tctggattgt ggctttatca gataaaaaca agtggtcatg 5280 ccacaggatg tctataagcc cattgattct gggattctat gagtgatgct gatatgacta 5340 agccaggaga gacttattta aagatctcag catctttcag cttgttaacc tagagaaaac 5400 ccgaagcatg actggattat aaagggaaat tgaatgcggt ccaccaagtt catggtaaag 5460 gatgcactaa cagattagag agaggtttcc cctgatatga ggaaaacttc ttggaagatg 5520 aggtgagatg gcctaggaag aaattcctac acaaagttgc acagtctcta gtcctggaaa 5580 cattttattc attggataag aatggattga ggcatgagca gaggactgag acaaacacag 5640 agaagtttca acactggttg gggagaaaag gagtaactag tgagattcag gcagaacaag 5700 aataaggctc ctcaagaggc acaagcaaag cagggctcga gttgatttgt tctctcttca 5760 tcctgctttt tgtaattcca ccagagtctg aaatggccac tccatagagt ctctgctctg 5820 ggattctcca ggaaaccaat atccatcatg agacatcaag tctagtccca ggaagaagag 5880 attctggaat ggaaacatcc tgggtgggag tctcagcaca tctactattc tgtctgagtt 5940 actggacaaa taacttcagt tttaacctaa cgaaagctgg gttggttgga ggactgggca 6000 ggcagcgctg gaaagtatgt cagcaccata cctgactccc tgaatgcact caacaatgcc 6060 attactgacc acttactaga aataaaacag tcatttgttg aatacaaccc gtttcttttt 6120 acaagtgtag tgaaaagtgt tttctttcaa gaaaccccat gcatttatag acattgcctc 6180 agtgaccctt tatgaaagaa gtcactagtc tttgtatgcc cattgggcaa gggcaccgca 6240 aggctcagaa ggaggaggca gtgggctagg agaatcgaga gatcagaatt ttaaactcag 6300 cccagccatt aacatgcctc aagtactcct atcatatttg taagagacaa cagttcactg 6360 aaatgaattc taaggtcttt gggtttttat cagtgtgctt ctgtagtttc tgaggaaatc 6420 taaggcacaa ctgaggaatg aagtcaggct ttccaattcc cgaaatactc ctccactgct 6480 tactcatgtc ccatggaaat taagaaggaa gccaggagaa tagctgccat aaccagggat 6540 gaacttcttg tccactgctg cctgctatgc tagcaacagc ctcctaactc ataatgactt 6600 agccatgagg aatgtttcta gattctcctt tagctgtctg cccatttgga agatgctgag 6660 gacagagaga ggacccaagc aggcaactag ttggaggact tgtacacgtt tccttccagc 6720 agtatgtcag agaggtggca gcccactggg gacagggctg cctgggttct gtgctcgagg 6780 ggaccttgag caggctattt aacccttctg tgcctcagtt gcctgatcta taacatgaaa 6840 attagcaatc cctactagat aaagttgggg aatttacaga gttaatattt gtaaaggtct 6900 gagaatattc ctggcagagt aagcactctg tgagtatgac actggcattt cttctgcagc 6960 actacatgct gtctatgcct ttgtccaagt ctgaaaccct agaactctta gaattcagtt 7020 caatgtttac acaatcctac agttctgcta ggcttctatg atgctactat tctgcatttg 7080 aatgagcaaa tggatttaat gcattgtcag ggagccggcc aaagcttgag agctccttcc 7140 tggctgggag gccccttgga atgtggcctg aaggtaagct ggcagcgagc ctgacatgct 7200 ttcatctagt ttcctcgctt ccttcctttt ctgcagtttt cgcttcacag aaagcagaat 7260 ccttaaaaat aaccctctta gttcacatct gtggtcagtc tgggcttaat ggcaccccat 7320 cctccccatt tgctcatttg gtctcagcag tgaatggaaa aagtgtctcg tcctgacccc 7380 ctgcttccct ttcctacttc ctggaaatcc acaggatgct gcatttgctc agcagattta 7440 acagcccact tatcactcat ggaagatccc tcctcctgct tgactccgcc ctctctccct 7500 ctgcccgctt tcaataagag gcagagacag cagccagagg aaccgagagg ctgagactaa 7560 cccagaaaca tccaattctc aaactgaagc tcgcactctc gcctccagca tgaaagtctc 7620 tgccgccctt ctgtgcctgc tgctcatagc agccaccttc attccccaag ggctcgctca 7680 gccaggtaag gccccctctt cttctccttg aaccacattg tcttctctct gagttatcat 7740 ggaccatcca agcagacgtg gtacccacag tcttgcttta acgctacttt tccaagataa 7800 ggtgactcag aaaaggacaa ggggtgagcc caaccacaca gctgctgctc ggcagagcct 7860 gaactagaat tccagctgtg aaccccaaat ccagctcctt ccaggattcc agctctggga 7920 acacactcag cgcagttact cccccagctg cttccagcag agtttgggga tcagggtaat 7980 caaagagagg gtgggtgtgt aggctgtttc cagacacgct ggagacccag aatctggtct 8040 gtgcttcatt caccttagct tccagagacg gtgactctgc agaggtaatg agtatcaggg 8100 aaactcatga ccaggcatag cctattcaga gtctaaaagg aggctcatag tggggctccc 8160 cagctgatct tccctggtgc tgatcatctg gattattggt ccgtcttaat gacacttgta 8220 ggcattatct agctttaact ctgtccatta tcaatgttat atacccattt tacagcatag 8280 gaaactgagt cattgggtca aagatcacat tctagctctg aggtataggc agaagcactg 8340 ggatttaatg agctctttct cttctcctgc ctgccttttg ctttttcctc atgactcttt 8400 tctgctctta agatcagaat aatccagttc atcctaaaat gctttttctt tgtggtttat 8460 tttccagatg caatcaatgc cccagtcacc tgctgctata acttcaccaa taggaagatc 8520 tcagtgcaga ggctcgcgag ctatagaaga atcaccagca gcaagtgtcc caaagaagct 8580 gtgatgtgag ttcagcacac caaccttccc tggcctgaag ttcttccttg tggagcaagg 8640 gacaagcctc ataaacctag agtcagagag tgcactattt aacttaatgt acaaaggttc 8700 ccaatgggaa aactgaggca ccaagggaaa aagtgaaccc caacatcact ctccacctgg 8760 gtgcctattc agaacacccc aatttcttta gcttgaagtc aggatggctc cacctggaca 8820 cctataggag cagtttgccc tgggttccct ccttccacct gcgttcctcc tctagctccc 8880 atggcagccc tttggtgcag aatgggctgc acttctagac caaaactgca aaggaacttc 8940 atctaactct gtcctccctc cccacagctt caagaccatt gtggccaagg agatctgtgc 9000 tgaccccaag cagaagtggg ttcaggattc catggaccac ctggacaagc aaacccaaac 9060 tccgaagact tgaacactca ctccacaacc caagaatctg cagctaactt attttcccct 9120 agctttcccc agacaccttg ttttatttta ttataatgaa ttttgtttgt tgatgtgaaa 9180 cattatgcct taagtaatgt taattcttat ttaagttatt gatgttttaa gtttatcttt 9240 catggtacta gtgtttttta gatacagaga cttggggaaa ttgcttttcc tcttgaacca 9300 cagttctacc cctgggatgt tttgagggtc tttgcaagaa tcattaatac aaagaatttt 9360 ttttaacatt ccaatgcatt gctaaaatat tattgtggaa atgaatattt tgtaactatt 9420 acaccaaata aatatatttt tgtacaaaac ctgacttcca gtgttttctt gaaggaaatt 9480 acaaagctga gagtatgagc ttggtggtga caaaggaaca tgatttcaga gggtggggct 9540 tacattttga aggaatggga aagtggattg gccccggtct tctccactgg gtggtctcct 9600 ctgagtctcc gtagaagaat ctttatggca ggccagttag gcattaaagc accacccttc 9660 cagtcttcaa cataagcagc ccagagtcca atgaccctgg tcacccattt agcaagagcc 9720 caacccccat tccttttctc acagaccctg acccctgcat gcaattcttc ccttaacata 9780 ttgcaactgc cccctaactg ggctacccac cccccaatct gtacctctcc aattaatacc 9840 ccaacctgga gtaatacaga cactgccagt attaggaaat aaggaaagag ttaatcacca 9900 tagataagat gattagattg aagtttcata gagatgatga gacctgaact tattatttat 9960 gaatgaagaa ggcttttcta ggaaaattat aggatcatta agaaaggaga aggaagagtg 10020 ggagcaaata cctggaggta gaaatggtga tgatgtgtac atcaagcagg gagaaaacca 10080 atgaaccaga tgcgaattcg ggcccacacc aatgtcaagg gatgacaatt agaaaggaag 10140 gttgagtcaa gggatttgaa tgttagggtg aaaagttact actcaactct gtaggttaaa 10200 aggaaacgtt gagaatcttc agtccaatga ggagggatgt gccatgttta gagattcaga 10260 gataagtttc aggaaatgta acttatagat tttatacata cacagagaaa tacggactag 10320 tgagaagcta ttgccatggt ccaagcaaga gatgatgaag gcctaaatat ggagccaaag 10380 aggcagcaat gaagaatgag ccatgcaggg tgaaatgctg catgttgtaa atggaggaga 10440 aagacctgtg acttcagata tgaaaacctc atcttcaacc cacattttaa gggggcagct 10500 tccctgaaac cagaatgtgt ttccctccat tactataccc ccatcccaat ctcaggcacc 10560 tggaatcatc catttaaaca gatgagcctt ctattcctaa atagccacct gaagtgtgta 10620 ttcctttgca tgatatttgt cccacctaaa gcattcgacc tgcctgggca cccacaccac 10680 gccaacactc aggaaagcag atgtcttgct ctgttgaata aactgcatgg ttcttaactt 10740 cccagtctgg tggggaaatg accactgtgt caacctagag caggcagtgc ttttggcagc 10800 atgaggtgct ggggacaact ttgactggca agaagcacac tcaggttctc accccgcatc 10860 cagcgctgac tcgctttgtc agtcaagaca ggtcagatat tctgagccta catcgatcat 10920 acaggtatga taatgtgtta caaataggaa cccagaggaa aggttccctt tcggatctgg 10980 gagcacatct gttggaaaac ttccatttct actaactgga gttgcagagg gagagaaggg 11040 attctgcttc tacattcctg agccagtcca gggtccctga atcagactac cgaatccctt 11100 caaagctcca agtaccctga tatatcagtc agcagacaat ttattgacag ctatttagaa 11160 aactcactga ccctcactcc aggtcaagca gcgtcccctg cctctcctct acccctacat 11220 tccctggcct tgatcaccag tcaggagtga aatctcaaat tgcagtagat gccaagaggc 11280 aaaaagagaa tagaatgcaa acaaatgaga cctcatcata tggcttccga gcagcaacct 11340 tttgacgcca ggcagatttg aggcagacag tctgggagga gaggaggcag agaaaggggg 11400 gatccacatg ctcaaacccc aaattaatct gcttacattc cccttgcagg ccacatctct 11460 tcattttcag gaagtcttga ctccatactg ttttccaccc aagcatggaa ttcctttcat 11520 gatgaaactg aacacagggc attggcagtg gtgagactct gttttagaag aaagtgccaa 11580 gtgcaatgca ttcatttcct gttgctgcca acaatcagtt ccaggaaatc taggcttttt 11640 atgtcatgct caaaattctt ccagcctatg ctcattattc aaatccaaag ccacatccac 11700 atctgtaggt gttagttaca gaagcaccat atttccaggt accaaaatct gtattagttt 11760 cttattgtta ctgtaacaaa ttcccataag ctt 11793 5 2273 DNA Homo sapiens 5 caggactgcc tgagacaagc cacaagctga acagagaaag tggattgaac aaggacgcat 60 ttccccagta catccacaac atgctgtcca catctcgttc tcggtttatc agaaatacca 120 acgagagcgg tgaagaagtc accacctttt ttgattatga ttacggtgct ccctgtcata 180 aatttgacgt gaagcaaatt ggggcccaac tcctgcctcc gctctactcg ctggtgttca 240 tctttggttt tgtgggcaac atgctggtcg tcctcatctt aataaactgc aaaaagctga 300 agtgcttgac tgacatttac ctgctcaacc tggccatctc tgatctgctt tttcttatta 360 ctctcccatt gtgggctcac tctgctgcaa atgagtgggt ctttgggaat gcaatgtgca 420 aattattcac agggctgtat cacatcggtt attttggcgg aatcttcttc atcatcctcc 480 tgacaatcga tagatacctg gctattgtcc atgctgtgtt tgctttaaaa gccaggacgg 540 tcacctttgg ggtggtgaca agtgtgatca cctggttggt ggctgtgttt gcttctgtcc 600 caggaatcat ctttactaaa tgccagaaag aagattctgt ttatgtctgt ggcccttatt 660 ttccacgagg atggaataat ttccacacaa taatgaggaa cattttgggg ctggtcctgc 720 cgctgctcat catggtcatc tgctactcgg gaatcctgaa aaccctgctt cggtgtcgaa 780 acgagaagaa gaggcatagg gcagtgagag tcatcttcac catcatgatt gtttactttc 840 tcttctggac tccctataac attgtcattc tcctgaacac cttccaggaa ttcttcggcc 900 tgagtaactg tgaaagcacc agtcaactgg accaagccac gcaggtgaca gagactcttg 960 ggatgactca ctgctgcatc aatcccatca tctatgcctt cgttggggag aagttcagaa 1020 gcctttttca catagctctt ggctgtagga ttgccccact ccaaaaacca gtgtgtggag 1080 gtccaggagt gagaccagga aagaatgtga aagtgactac acaaggactc ctcgatggtc 1140 gtggaaaagg aaagtcaatt ggcagagccc ctgaagccag tcttcaggac aaagaaggag 1200 cctagagaca gaaatgacag atctctgctt tggaaatcac acgtctggct tcacagatgt 1260 gtgattcaca gtgtgaatct tggtgtctac gttaccaggc aggaaggctg agaggagaga 1320 gactccagct gggttggaaa acagtatttt ccaaactacc ttccagttcc tcatttttga 1380 atacaggcat agagttcaga ctttttttaa atagtaaaaa taaaattaaa gctgaaaact 1440 gcaacttgta aatgtggtaa agagttagtt tgagttgcta tcatgtcaaa cgtgaaaatg 1500 ctgtattagt cacagagata attctagctt tgagcttaag aattttgagc aggtggtatg 1560 tttgggagac tgctgagtca acccaatagt tgttgattgg caggagttgg aagtgtgtga 1620 tctgtgggca cattagccta tgtgcatgca gcatctaagt aatgatgtcg tttgaatcac 1680 agtatacgct ccatcgctgt catctcagct ggatctccat tctctcaggc ttgctgccaa 1740 aagccttttg tgttttgttt tgtatcatta tgaagtcatg cgtttaatca cattcgagtg 1800 tttcagtgct tcgcagatgt ccttgatgct catattgttc cctaatttgc cagtgggaac 1860 tcctaaatca aattggcttc taatcaaagc ttttaaaccc tattggtaaa gaatggaagg 1920 tggagaagct ccctgaagta agcaaagact ttcctcttag tcgagccaag ttaagaatgt 1980 tcttatgttg cccagtgtgt ttctgatctg atgcaagcaa gaaacactgg gcttctagaa 2040 ccaggcaact tgggaactag actcccaagc tggactatgg ctctactttc aggccacatg 2100 gctaaagaag gtttcagaaa gaagtgggga cagagcagaa ctttcacctt catatatttg 2160 tatgatccta atgaatgcat aaaatgttaa gttgatggtg atgaaatgta aatactgttt 2220 ttaacaacta tgatttggaa aataaatcaa tgctataact atgttgataa aag 2273 6 1979 DNA Homo sapiens 6 caggactgcc tgagacaagc cacaagctga acagagaaag tggattgaac aaggacgcat 60 ttccccagta catccacaac atgctgtcca catctcgttc tcggtttatc agaaatacca 120 acgagagcgg tgaagaagtc accacctttt ttgattatga ttacggtgct ccctgtcata 180 aatttgacgt gaagcaaatt ggggcccaac tcctgcctcc gctctactcg ctggtgttca 240 tctttggttt tgtgggcaac atgctggtcg tcctcatctt aataaactgc aaaaagctga 300 agtgcttgac tgacatttac ctgctcaacc tggccatctc tgatctgctt tttcttatta 360 ctctcccatt gtgggctcac tctgctgcaa atgagtgggt ctttgggaat gcaatgtgca 420 aattattcac agggctgtat cacatcggtt attttggcgg aatcttcttc atcatcctcc 480 tgacaatcga tagatacctg gctattgtcc atgctgtgtt tgctttaaaa gccaggacgg 540 tcacctttgg ggtggtgaca agtgtgatca cctggttggt ggctgtgttt gcttctgtcc 600 caggaatcat ctttactaaa tgccagaaag aagattctgt ttatgtctgt ggcccttatt 660 ttccacgagg atggaataat ttccacacaa taatgaggaa cattttgggg ctggtcctgc 720 cgctgctcat catggtcatc tgctactcgg gaatcctgaa aaccctgctt cggtgtcgaa 780 acgagaagaa gaggcatagg gcagtgagag tcatcttcac catcatgatt gtttactttc 840 tcttctggac tccctataac attgtcattc tcctgaacac cttccaggaa ttcttcggcc 900 tgagtaactg tgaaagcacc agtcaactgg accaagccac gcaggtgaca gagactcttg 960 ggatgactca ctgctgcatc aatcccatca tctatgcctt cgttggggag aagttcagaa 1020 ggtatctctc ggtgttcttc cgaaagcaca tcaccaagcg cttctgcaaa caatgtccag 1080 ttttctacag ggagacagtg gatggagtga cttcaacaaa cacgccttcc actggggagc 1140 aggaagtctc ggctggttta taaaacgagg agcagtttga ttgttgttta taaagggaga 1200 taacaatctg tatataacaa caaacttcaa gggtttgttg aacaatagaa acctgtaaag 1260 caggtgccca ggaacctcag ggctgtgtgt actaatacag actatgtcac ccaatgcata 1320 tccaacatgt gctcagggaa taatccagaa aaactgtggg tagagacttt gactctccag 1380 aaagctcatc tcagctcctg aaaaatgcct cattaccttg tgctaatcct ctttttctag 1440 tcttcataat ttcttcactc aatctctgat tctgtcaatg tcttgaaatc aagggccagc 1500 tggaggtgaa gaagagaatg tgacaggcac agatgaatgg gagtgaggga tagtggggtc 1560 agggctgaga ggagaaggag ggagacatga gcatggctga gcctggacaa agacaaaggt 1620 gagcaaaggg ctcacgcatt cagccaggag atgatactgg tccttagccc catctgccac 1680 gtgtatttaa ccttgaaggg ttcaccaggt cagggagagt ttgggaactg caataacctg 1740 ggagttttgg tggagtccga tgattctctt ttgcataagt gcatgacata tttttgcttt 1800 attacagttt atctatggca cccatgcacc ttacatttga aatctatgaa atatcatgct 1860 ccattgttca gatgcttctt aggccacatc cccctgtcta aaaattcaga aaatttttgt 1920 ttataaaaga tgcattatct atgatatgct aatatatgta tatgcaatat aaaatttag 1979 7 10073 DNA Homo sapiens 7 gtttatgaaa ttacagggct ggagacaaag atcacaatgt gaagacaaaa ttggagagcg 60 gtcctaatca gccagagcaa aatttctggc tcttgctctt ccccatcctg ggttgaatca 120 taggaacagg tggcaagatg ccagggtcag gagattccag aagtggcagc aagctcagtg 180 ttaccaggtc agggatgacc tgtcttatta ttgaaatctc agagatatgc tccaattccg 240 gcccagagac acattgagag acaactgggg aacttgctat gttcctgaac aggcaatgag 300 ctgtcttcca agaaaaaacc tgagaccctt caagtctcag gtcttactta gcacatatac 360 caggtcttac acaggacaca tggttacaac tgactgaaat ctgggctggg tgtaggagct 420 cacacctgta atcccagccc ttcaggaggc tgaggcaggc agattgcctg agcccaggag 480 ttcgagacca gcccgggcaa catgacaaaa ccccatctct acaaaaaata gtcaggcatg 540 gtggcatgca cctgtagtct cagctacttg ggaggctgag atgagaggat tgcttgaggt 600 tgagactgca gtgaagcatg atcatgccac cgcactccag cctaggcaac agagcaagat 660 cttgtcgcaa aagaaagcaa aaacacaaca taacacaaca acaacaacaa caacaacaac 720 agcaaaaaag ccaacttctt gaaatctgga aaggacacct ggactgccct gagcatttga 780 ttgttgttgg ctctagcagt ggatgcatcc ttcaacctct ggcactctgc agggctcaga 840 ctgttctgtt ctgtttgtta cctgtggagt gcctgccaga ccctgctcta gctgctttag 900 gtccatttac cctcatagac ccccagtctt gttattcata tttcatattt gggaaatgga 960 aacttagaaa cttgccaagt ccacagcatg agatcctgcc tccggtgtct gctggattcc 1020 agaaagtgcc aggggccaac ttagatgaca ccatgttctc tgcacaatct taggaatgct 1080 cctagtctga tgtccccatt gcaaaattta cattatcttt taacaaaacg tctttccaag 1140 gaggggcatt taaaataact gaggttcttc ttgctaagga agttcctgac acaagagata 1200 atttagcatt tccttttcat taaaaagttt gaaatcctgt aatttgtgat aatgtggatg 1260 aacctagagg atgttaagtg aaataagcca cacacagata gacaaatacc acgtgatctc 1320 actcttatgt ggaatttttt tttaaataag ttgcttagcc gggcatgatg gcacacacct 1380 gtaatcctag ctactcagga ggctgaggtg ggaggatggc ttgaactcag aaggtggagg 1440 ttgcagtgag ctgagactgt gccagtgcac tccggtctgg gtgacagaat gaaacccaat 1500 ttaaaaaaaa aaaaaaagtt gctatcttag aaaaagacag tagagcagtg gttaccagag 1560 actggggagg aaagagagga ggtgagaatg ggcagcagtt gatcaacggg tacaaagtta 1620 ccatgagata ggagaaacaa gtgctggtgc tctgctccaa gtagggtgac ggtagttaat 1680 aatgaattct gtatatataa atagctagaa gagagggttt tcaatatcat tattatttca 1740 aaagaaatga taaatgtttc agaggatgga tatgtaatta ccctgatttg atcattgcac 1800 aatgtataca tgtagcaaaa catcacattg tgtcccataa atatatacaa ttattatgtg 1860 aattaaataa aaaaaaattt taaagtctta tctaaatgaa atttctaacc agattctgaa 1920 tccatgatac cactgaaacc agcacacatg atcgcagtaa aacctcatta tacttcctcc 1980 actatcacca atacccttta ttctctggaa catgaaacat tctgttgtgc tcatatcatg 2040 caaattatca ctagtaggag agcagagagt ggaaatgttc caggtataaa gacccacaag 2100 ataaagaagc tcagagtcgt tagaaacagg agcagatgta cagggtttgc ctgactcaca 2160 ctcaaggttg cataagcaag atttcaaaat taatcctatt ctggagacct caacccaatg 2220 tacaatgttc ctgactggaa aagaagaact atatttttct gatttttttt tttcaaatct 2280 ttaccattag ttgccctgta tctccgcctt cactttctgc aggaaacttt atttcctact 2340 tctgcatacc aagtttctac ctctagatct gtttggttca gttgctgaga agcctgacat 2400 accaggactg cctgagacaa gccacaagct ggtgagttgt aggcattttt tccattactt 2460 tctgattcat aggctcaacg cacctcaaag ctggaaatgc cgggtctggg tacaccctgg 2520 ggaactgcaa agcctgcaca cttgggggga atgatcaaga tgagaggcag gggtggggat 2580 ggcatgtgca ccaggagatg ttagagaaac cctgaggaag agcagcgtgc agcaggtgat 2640 gggggagagt gggcagcaag cgaggccagg acagccactc tgctcagtca ccagtccaca 2700 cacccagggg ctcactctgc ccctctgagc acccaaggac gttaaagagc tggaactgtt 2760 agtctaaata taggaccatc caagctctga accaaaatgt gtcccttgcc tcaactcagg 2820 agatccacag aggcagaagt aaggaattta ttttctgaaa gatagatttc tatcagttct 2880 gggtgacatg ttctgacact tgaaatgaca cctaggacag cacatttcag gcatcttgct 2940 cattgttcac tgtagtagaa gctacatgct agccagttgt aaaaatgaaa ttaagtaatg 3000 tgtgcacagc atttaacata gcatctgagc ttcaggagca ctcaattaat gaccacagtt 3060 gtgattcttt aggcagatgc atttttttcc aactttgatc agaggtctta tttagcttct 3120 ccagatttca agaatctggc tcagtgatat gaaatacaag acttgtgaaa agtgtcaatt 3180 gcaagagaaa tggaaggata aagtatacag gtgggtggaa aagaaattca cagtcactgc 3240 cagaaaaaaa attcttgaga atcaagtcct gatgatgtta gggcttatag ttcttattat 3300 aaagagtttt atgtactcat tcagtgaaca tttattggtg cctcctttag ccaggtacta 3360 tcataagagc tgaaaataga agcataatcc agtccttgat cttgaggaac atgctgtgtg 3420 tagcagataa cataataagt gcttatctag atgcatgcag tgttatgtga taagagtaat 3480 atgacagagg atacagatta ggcttcacag agaaggggga tttgagcagg aggtattgaa 3540 gggtgaatag aagctcacca atcattttgg gcagaggggc aaggacctgc aaaaccactg 3600 aagcatgaag gaaatggtga gtttagggaa aatgaagaga agatggctgt gactgaagca 3660 caggatttgg gattggagaa gggactggag gtgaggctga aaagaggcaa actcagaaaa 3720 gatgttgtgc tgggcagtct ggacattatc tttgaagccc accacatata agtcataggg 3780 ctactggagg ttttaagcta agagtgacta ttcaatttca acttaagaga agataggttg 3840 agagggaaca tggcttgaga tgagccatga gcaaaggaaa gactacaaca aagccaggag 3900 tgaggagtgt gtgaagcaag aaagtgacag ttgaaagcag tgcagagggg atgaatctga 3960 gaggcatcta tgaggtggaa ctcaaatgac atgataataa tacagggcat ttctctgtgt 4020 cagatgctgt cctaagtcct tactccattg atcttcacag caactcagca tagttaatat 4080 tttatgcata aagaaatcgg cacttgaagg agtaattggc cccagattac actgcctata 4140 aggattcaaa tccaggtttg tttggctcca aaaactggct cctaattttc agaaggagaa 4200 gcgacccagg gcaatgccca attttgcttc ttaggcaatg gaggaatcca caatcggaag 4260 gagttttcag cagtgcccca tttggggtgg gttgaatttg aggtccctgc atgataccca 4320 ctttgctcac ttcagtgcct aaaactgagt atggttcata gtaggtgttc aataagtgtt 4380 gatgcagtga atacatgcat ggggagatat gcatcaggca atgggaaatt caactctaag 4440 gcttagggga aagctggagc ttgaagacag agctttagaa aacagtagca tagaagggag 4500 taggaaccat gagtttagac aatacaattc aggaagaact ttgtagcaag gataaagagg 4560 caaaaaatta aagaggtgag agctaagtgt ggtgcctggg gaatcttaag gtgtgggcac 4620 ggggaggaga tgccagcaaa gaacatgaat aaaaagcggt agcacagccc ctcccatctg 4680 gaagccaaaa agaattgtaa atggaggaag ttagcagaag gatcaaatac ttgaagaggg 4740 tggaattgga ataaaaccag ggcatttgaa aaattgggtt gtcactgcaa tcttaacaag 4800 agaagttttg gcaggatgat ggaggcagaa agctgagaga atcatcagtt agaacgtttt 4860 tgacttcaga gaacagaaaa tgcagttcat aatggcttta aaacaggggc ttgtttttct 4920 cccagcaatt tgagaggcca aggcgggtgc atcaggaggt caagagaccg agaccatcct 4980 ggccaacatg gtgaatcccc atctctacta aaaatacaaa aattagcggg gcatggtggt 5040 gcacgcctat agtcccatct actcaggagg ctgaggcagg agaatcactt gaacccagga 5100 ggtggaggtt gcagtgagct gagatcatgg ccactgcact atagcctgga gacacagcga 5160 gactccgtct ccaaaaaaaa aaaaaaagaa ggcagaaggt gaatagttca agggtgggtt 5220 taggactcag tgataatagg attctgcctg gcttctcatg gttctctagg tcttccattc 5280 atggcaccat gccctcacta ggcatgctgc cagagcagga ggggcaggtg gagggttctc 5340 ttgtgtctgt cttatcaggg aagaagagct ttctcagaag cccccagcag actccctttt 5400 catattatgg tccagcaatg agtcacagac ctatgcacca cctgcaaagg agccagagaa 5460 aacaaacgcc cagcgctttt agcctgaaaa tgagaatctg gtttgctggg gaagataaag 5520 ggtgtcggaa aatggctgtt gggtaaatca ttgatgtctg ccactaggaa tgaaaggcaa 5580 atcaggaact ggcacacatg ctttcaggga gatggctgca agggagaggg caaagactgg 5640 gaagttgctt atgtggtgcc agactatttg gaagatcatg gattgcggtg tttgtgttgt 5700 gtggtcatca ttttgttctt tgtttacaga acagagaaag tggattgaac aaggacgcat 5760 ttccccagta catccacaac atgctgtcca catctcgttc tcggtttatc agaaatacca 5820 acgagagcgg tgaagaagtc accacctttt ttgattatga ttacggtgct ccctgtcata 5880 aatttgacgt gaagcaaatt ggggcccaac tcctgcctcc gctctactcg ctggtgttca 5940 tctttggttt tgtgggcaac atgctggtcg tcctcatctt aataaactgc aaaaagctga 6000 agtgcttgac tgacatttac ctgctcaacc tggccatctc tgatctgctt tttcttatta 6060 ctctcccatt gtgggctcac tctgctgcaa atgagtgggt ctttgggaat gcaatgtgca 6120 aattattcac agggctgtat cacatcggtt attttggcgg aatcttcttc atcatcctcc 6180 tgacaatcga tagatacctg gctattgtcc atgctgtgtt tgctttaaaa gccaggacgg 6240 tcacctttgg ggtggtgaca agtgtgatca cctggttggt ggctgtgttt gcttctgtcc 6300 caggaatcat ctttactaaa tgccagaaag aagattctgt ttatgtctgt ggcccttatt 6360 ttccacgagg atggaataat ttccacacaa taatgaggaa cattttgggg ctggtcctgc 6420 cgctgctcat catggtcatc tgctactcgg gaatcctgaa aaccctgctt cggtgtcgaa 6480 acgagaagaa gaggcatagg gcagtgagag tcatcttcac catcatgatt gtttactttc 6540 tcttctggac tccctataat attgtcattc tcctgaacac cttccaggaa ttcttcggcc 6600 tgagtaactg tgaaagcacc agtcaactgg accaagccac gcaggtgaca gagactcttg 6660 ggatgactca ctgctgcatc aatcccatca tctatgcctt cgttggggag aagttcagaa 6720 ggtatctctc ggtgttcttc cgaaagcaca tcaccaagcg cttctgcaaa caatgtccag 6780 ttttctacag ggagacagtg gatggagtga cttcaacaaa cacgccttcc actggggagc 6840 aggaagtctc ggctggttta taaaacgagg agcagtttga ttgttgttta taaagggaga 6900 taacaatctg tatataacaa caaacttcaa gggtttgttg aacaatagaa acctgtaaag 6960 caggtgccca ggaacctcag ggctgtgtgt actaatacag actatgtcac ccaatgcata 7020 tccaacatgt gctcagggaa taatccagaa aaactgtggg tagagacttt gactctccag 7080 aaagctcatc tcagctcctg aaaaatgcct cattaccttg tgctaatcct ctttttctag 7140 tcttcataat ttcttcactc aatctctgat tctgtcaatg tcttgaaatc aagggccagc 7200 tggaggtgaa gaagagaatg tgacaggcac agatgaatgg gagtgaggga tagtggggtc 7260 agggctgaga ggagaaggag ggagacatga gcatggctga gcctggacaa agacaaaggt 7320 gagcaaaggg ctcacgcatt cagccaggag atgatactgg tccttagccc catctgccac 7380 gtgtatttaa ccttgaaggg ttcaccaggt cagggagagt ttgggaactg caataacctg 7440 ggagttttgg tggagtccga tgattctctt ttgcataagt gcatgacata tttttgcttt 7500 attacagttt atctatggca cccatgcacc ttacatttga aatctatgaa atatcatgct 7560 ccattgttca gatgcttctt aggccacatc cccctgtcta aaaattcaga aaatttttgt 7620 ttataaaaga tgcattatct atgatatgct aatatatgta tatgcaatat atataggctc 7680 ttgcttgatc tctccaggag gtagtgatta tgagaagggg gtggagaatg atgagttcct 7740 tcaccaggag caaaggacgg ggatcgtgtg gaaccactgc agaactattt ccgaaatcaa 7800 ctaagtggag agagccagga aggctgcatc agaacccagt aaagcttctt gtctggatct 7860 gagctggttt gttttgtgct tgcttttccc tgccttgcca ctcccctcac tcttctcttt 7920 tccccacagc ctttttcaca tagctcttgg ctgtaggatt gccccactcc aaaaaccagt 7980 gtgtggaggt ccaggagtga gaccaggaaa gaatgtgaaa gtgactacac aaggactcct 8040 cgatggtcgt ggaaaaggaa agtcaattgg cagagcccct gaagccagtc ttcaggacaa 8100 agaaggagcc tagagacaga aatgacagat ctctgctttg gaaatcacac gtctggcttc 8160 acagatgtgt gattcacagt gtgaatcttg gtgtctacgt taccaggcag gaaggctgag 8220 aggagagaga ctccagctgg gttggaaaac agtattttcc aaactacctt ccagttcctc 8280 atttttgaat acaggcatag agttcagact ttttttaaat agtaaaaata aaattaaagc 8340 tgaaaactgc aacttgtaaa tgtggtaaag agttagtttg agttactatc atgtcaaacg 8400 tgaaaatgct gtattagtca cagagataat tctagctttg agcttaagaa ttttgagcag 8460 gtggtatgtt tgggagactg ctgagtcaac ccaatagttg ttgattggca ggagttggaa 8520 gtgtgtgatc tgtgggcaca ttagcctatg tgcatgcagc atctaagtaa tgatgtcgtt 8580 tgaatcacag tatacgctcc atcgctgtca tctcagctgg atctccattc tctcaggctt 8640 gctgccaaaa gccttttgtg ttttgttttg tatcattatg aagtcatgcg tttaatcaca 8700 ttcgagtgtt tcagtgcttc gcagatgtcc ttgatgctca tattgttccc tattttgcca 8760 gtgggaactc ctaaatcaag ttggcttcta atcaaagctt ttaaacccta ttggtaaaga 8820 atggaaggtg gagaagctcc ctgaagtaag caaagacttt cctcttagtc gagccaagtt 8880 aagaatgttc ttatgttgcc cagtgtgttt ctgatctgat gcaagcaaga aacactgggc 8940 ttctagaacc aggcaacttg ggaactagac tcccaagctg gactatggct ctactttcag 9000 gccacatggc taaagaaggt ttcagaaaga agtggggaca gagcagaact ttcaccttca 9060 tatatttgta tgatcctaat gaatgcataa aatgttaagt tgatggtgat gaaatgtaaa 9120 tactgttttt aacaactatg atttggaaaa taaatcaatg ctataactat gttgataaaa 9180 gatttaaaaa caactggctg tttttttaca ctgtggtgtg gaagattgtg ttgtgttcac 9240 aacttttcac ttcttcccct gtgtgattac acacacctgc ccttgtggtg tgacttgcag 9300 tgcgccctac aggccacaca accccatgcc ctccaccact ggctctgctg ctggaatgtg 9360 agcagaagtg acatctgcct catccaagca gagcctcttg ctcagccaca ggaaggccca 9420 ttccagatca cacccgtcag cccgtgcgcc ctggtgaatg agaagacaca gggagctgca 9480 gccacatata acatgagcaa gaagtctgtg tttgctgtga taagccactg agttttaggg 9540 gttgtttgtt aagaagcaca aaaaccgatt aagacatgtg gtatatagtg acttcatata 9600 tagaatctgg aaaactatcc atttattttc aatcatggaa ttcaatatga caagcatccc 9660 ggagggtcta cctatgccag actgggttgg aaacagaaag acagatgtta atgccagtgt 9720 cctttacacc tccaagtcca gggccagctg tggagtggga ggggtagaga aggtcctgtg 9780 cacagtcaca gtgcgctgtg cagagcagga acagaggcat ctgtgaaaag tgctgagagc 9840 ctggaggaca gagtgactaa tgcaatgaca gtcttgcatc ataggaataa cagccacagc 9900 aggattttat tgctgccaaa gaaactgcca tttaaaaatt gccagccatc cgggaggctg 9960 aggcaggaga atggcatgaa tccaggaggc ggagcttgca gtgagccgag atcgggccac 10020 tgcactccag cctgggcaac agagccagac tccatctcaa aaaaaaaaaa aaa 10073 8 2082 DNA Homo sapiens 8 gcacacctgt aatcccagcc cttcaggagg ctgaggcagg cagattgcct gagcccagga 60 gttcgagacc agcccgggca acatgacaaa accccatctc tacaaaaaat agtcaggcat 120 ggtggcatgc acctgtagtc tcagctactt gggaggctga gatgagagga ttgcttgagg 180 ttgagactgc actgaagcat gatcatgcca ccgcactcca gcctaggcaa cagagcaaga 240 tcttgtcgca aaagaaagca aaaatacaac ataacacaac aacaacaaca acaacaacaa 300 cagcaaaaaa gccaacttct tgaaatctgg aaaggacacc tccactgccc tcagcatttg 360 attgttgttg gctctagcag tggatgcatc cttcaacctc tggcactctg caggggctca 420 gactgttctg ttctgtttgt tacctgtgga gtgcctgcca gaccctgctc tagctgcttt 480 aggtccattt accctcatag acccccagtc ttgttattca tatttcatat ttgggaaatg 540 gaaacttaga aacttgccaa gtccacagca tgagatcctg cctccggtgt ctgctggatt 600 ccagaaagtg ccaggggcca acttagatga caccatgttc tctgcacaat cttaggaatg 660 ctcctagtct gatgtcccca ttgcaaaatt tacattatct tttaacaaaa cgtctttcca 720 aggaggggca tttaaaataa ctgaggttct tcttgctaag gacgttcctg acacaagaga 780 taatttagca tttccttttc attaaaaagt ttgaaatcct gtaatttgtg ataatgtgga 840 tgaacctaga ggatgttaag tgaaataagc cacacacaga tagacaaata ccacgtgatc 900 tcactcttat gtggaatttt tttttaaata agttgcttag ccgggcatga tggcacacac 960 ctgtaatcct agctactcag gaggctgagg tgggaggatg gcttgaactc agaaggtgga 1020 ggtagcagtg agctgagact gtgccagtgc actccggtct gggtgacaga atgaaaccca 1080 atttaaaaaa aaaaaaaaag ttgctatctt agaaaaagac agtagagcag tggttaccag 1140 agactgggga ggaaagagag gaggtgagaa tgggcagcag ttgatcaacg ggtacaaagt 1200 taccatgaga taggagaaac aagtgctggt gctctgctcc aagtagggtg acggtagtta 1260 ataatgaatt ctgtatatat aaatagctag aagagagggt tttcaatatc attattattt 1320 caaaagaaat gataaatgtt tcagaggatg gatatgtaat taccctgatt tgatcattgc 1380 acaatgtata catgtagcaa aacatcacat tgtgtcccat aaatatatac aattattatg 1440 tgaattaaat aaaaaaaaat tttaaagtct tatctaaatg aaatttctaa ccagattctg 1500 aatccatgat accactgaaa ccagcacaca tgatcgcagt aaaacctcat tatacttcct 1560 ccactatcac caataccctt tattctctgg aacatgaaac attctgttgt gctcatatca 1620 tgcaaattat cactagtagg agagcagaga gtggaaatgt tccaggtata aagacccaca 1680 agataaagaa gctcagagtc gttagaaaca ggagcagatg tacagggttt gcctgactca 1740 cactcaaggt tgcataagca agatttcaaa attaatccta ttctggagac ctcaacccaa 1800 tgtacaatgt tcctgactgg aaaagaagaa ctatattttt ctgatttttt ttttcaaatc 1860 tttaccatta gttgccctgt atctccgcct tcactttctg caggaaactt tatttcctac 1920 ttctgcatgc caagtttcta cctctagatc tgtttggttc agttgctgag aagcctgaca 1980 taccaggact gcctgagaca agccacaagc tggtgagttg taggcatttt ttccattact 2040 ttctgattca taggctcaac gcacctcaaa gctggaaatg cc 2082 9 5444 DNA Homo sapiens 9 ctacctccaa ccatgggcct tttgggaata ctttgttttt taatcttcct ggggaaaacc 60 tggggacagg agcaaacata tgtcatttca gcaccaaaaa tattccgtgt tggagcatct 120 gaaaatattg tgattcaagt ttatggatac actgaagcat ttgatgcaac aatctctatt 180 aaaagttatc ctgataaaaa atttagttac tcctcaggcc atgttcattt atcctcagag 240 aataaattcc aaaactctgc aatcttaaca atacaaccaa aacaattgcc tggaggacaa 300 aacccagttt cttatgtgta tttggaagtt gtatcaaagc atttttcaaa atcaaaaaga 360 atgccaataa cctatgacaa tggatttctc ttcattcata cagacaaacc tgtttatact 420 ccagaccagt cagtaaaagt tagagtttat tcgttgaatg acgacttgaa gccagccaaa 480 agagaaactg tcttaacctt catagatcct gaaggatcag aagttgacat ggtagaagaa 540 attgatcata ttggaattat ctcttttcct gacttcaaga ttccgtctaa tcctagatat 600 ggtatgtgga cgatcaaggc taaatataaa gaggactttt caacaactgg aaccgcatat 660 tttgaagtta aagaatatgt cttgccacat ttttctgtct caatcgagcc agaatataat 720 ttcattggtt acaagaactt taagaatttt gaaattacta taaaagcaag atatttttat 780 aataaagtag tcactgaggc tgacgtttat atcacatttg gaataagaga agacttaaaa 840 gatgatcaaa aagaaatgat gcaaacagca atgcaaaaca caatgttgat aaatggaatt 900 gctcaagtca catttgattc tgaaacagca gtcaaagaac tgtcatacta cagtttagaa 960 gatttaaaca acaagtacct ttatattgct gtaacagtca tagagtctac aggtggattt 1020 tctgaagagg cagaaatacc tggcatcaaa tatgtcctct ctccctacaa actgaatttg 1080 gttgctactc ctcttttcct gaagcctggg attccatatc ccatcaaggt gcaggttaaa 1140 gattcgcttg accagttggt aggaggagtc ccagtaatac tgaatgcaca aacaattgat 1200 gtaaaccaag agacatctga cttggatcca agcaaaagtg taacacgtgt tgatgatgga 1260 gtagcttcct ttgtgcttaa tctcccatct ggagtgacgg tgctggagtt taatgtcaaa 1320 actgatgctc cagatcttcc agaagaaaat caggccaggg aaggttaccg agcaatagca 1380 tactcatctc tcagccaaag ttacctttat attgattgga ctgataacca taaggctttg 1440 ctagtgggag aacatctgaa tattattgtt acccccaaaa gcccatatat tgacaaaata 1500 actcactata attacttgat tttatccaag ggcaaaatta tccattttgg cacgagggag 1560 aaattttcag atgcatctta tcaaagtata aacattccag taacacagaa catggttcct 1620 tcatcccgac ttctggtcta ttatatcgtc acaggagaac agacagcaga attagtgtct 1680 gattcagtct ggttaaatat tgaagaaaaa tgtggcaacc agctccaggt tcatctgtct 1740 cctgatgcag atgcatattc tccaggccaa actgtgtctc ttaatatggc aactggaatg 1800 gattcctggg tggcattagc agcagtggac agtgctgtgt atggagtcca aagaggagcc 1860 aaaaagccct tggaaagagt atttcaattc ttagagaaga gtgatctggg ctgtggggca 1920 ggtggtggcc tcaacaatgc caatgtgttc cacctagctg gacttacctt cctcactaat 1980 gcaaatgcag atgactccca agaaaatgat gaaccttgta aagaaattct caggccaaga 2040 agaacgctgc aaaagaagat agaagaaata gctgctaaat ataaacattc agtagtgaag 2100 aaatgttgtt acgatggagc ctgcgttaat aatgatgaaa cctgtgagca gcgagctgca 2160 cggattagtt tagggccaag atgcatcaaa gctttcactg aatgttgtgt cgtcgcaagc 2220 cagctccgtg ctaatatctc tcataaagac atgcaattgg gaaggctaca catgaagacc 2280 ctgttaccag taagcaagcc agaaattcgg agttattttc cagaaagctg gttgtgggaa 2340 gttcatcttg ttcccagaag aaaacagttg cagtttgccc tacctgattc tctaaccacc 2400 tgggaaattc aaggcattgg catttcaaac actggtatat gtgttgctga tactgtcaag 2460 gcaaaggtgt tcaaagatgt cttcctggaa atgaatatac catattctgt tgtacgagga 2520 gaacagatcc aattgaaagg aactgtttac aactatagga cttctgggat gcagttctgt 2580 gttaaaatgt ctgctgtgga gggaatctgc acttcggaaa gcccagtcat tgatcatcag 2640 ggcacaaagt cctccaaatg tgtgcgccag aaagtagagg gctcctccag tcacttggtg 2700 acattcactg tgcttcctct ggaaattggc cttcacaaca tcaatttttc actggagact 2760 tggtttggaa aagaaatctt agtaaaaaca ttacgagtgg tgccagaagg tgtcaaaagg 2820 gaaagctatt ctggtgttac tttggatcct aggggtattt atggtaccat tagcagacga 2880 aaggagttcc catacaggat acccttagat ttggtcccca aaacagaaat caaaaggatt 2940 ttgagtgtaa aaggactgct tgtaggtgag atcttgtctg cagttctaag tcaggaaggc 3000 atcaatatcc taacccacct ccccaaaggg agtgcagagg cggagctgat gagcgttgtc 3060 ccagtattct atgtttttca ctacctggaa acaggaaatc attggaacat ttttcattct 3120 gacccattaa ttgaaaagca gaaactgaag aaaaaattaa aagaagggat gttgagcatt 3180 atgtcctaca gaaatgctga ctactcttac agtgtgtgga agggtggaag tgctagcact 3240 tggttaacag cttttgcttt aagagtactt ggacaagtaa ataaatacgt agagcagaac 3300 caaaattcaa tttgtaattc tttattgtgg ctagttgaga attatcaatt agataatgga 3360 tctttcaagg aaaattcaca gtatcaacca ataaaattac agggtacctt gcctgttgaa 3420 gcccgagaga acagcttata tcttacagcc tttactgtga ttggaattag aaaggctttc 3480 gatatatgcc ccctggtgaa aatcgacaca gctctaatta aagctgacaa ctttctgctt 3540 gaaaatacac tgccagccca gagcaccttt acattggcca tttctgcgta tgctctttcc 3600 ctgggagata aaactcaccc acagtttcgt tcaattgttt cagctttgaa gagagaagct 3660 ttggttaaag gtaatccacc catttatcgt ttttggaaag acaatcttca gcataaagac 3720 agctctgtac ctaacactgg tacggcacgt atggtagaaa caactgccta tgctttactc 3780 accagtctga acttgaaaga tataaattat gttaacccag tcatcaaatg gctatcagaa 3840 gagcagaggt atggaggtgg cttttattca acccaggaca ccatcaatgc cattgagggc 3900 ctgacggaat attcactcct ggttaaacaa ctccgcttga gtatggacat cgatgtttct 3960 tacaagcata aaggtgcctt acataattat aaaatgacag acaagaattt ccttgggagg 4020 ccagtagagg tgcttctcaa tgatgacctc attgtcagta caggatttgg cagtggcttg 4080 gctacagtac atgtaacaac tgtagttcac aaaaccagta cctctgagga agtttgcagc 4140 ttttatttga aaatcgatac tcaggatatt gaagcatccc actacagagg ctacggaaac 4200 tctgattaca aacgcatagt agcatgtgcc agctacaagc ccagcaggga agaatcatca 4260 tctggatcct ctcatgcggt gatggacatc tccttgccta ctggaatcag tgcaaatgaa 4320 gaagacttaa aagcccttgt ggaaggggtg gatcaactat tcactgatta ccaaatcaaa 4380 gatggacatg ttattctgca actgaattcg attccctcca gtgatttcct ttgtgtacga 4440 ttccggatat ttgaactctt tgaagttggg tttctcagtc ctgccacttt cacagtttac 4500 gaataccaca gaccagataa acagtgtacc atgttttata gcacttccaa tatcaaaatt 4560 cagaaagtct gtgaaggagc cgcgtgcaag tgtgtagaag ctgattgtgg gcaaatgcag 4620 gaagaattgg atctgacaat ctctgcagag acaagaaaac aaacagcatg taaaccagag 4680 attgcatatg cttataaagt tagcatcaca tccatcactg tagaaaatgt ttttgtcaag 4740 tacaaggcaa cccttctgga tatctacaaa actggggaag ctgttgctga gaaagactct 4800 gagattacct tcattaaaaa ggtaacctgt actaacgctg agctggtaaa aggaagacag 4860 tacttaatta tgggtaaaga agccctccag ataaaataca atttcagttt caggtacatc 4920 taccctttag attccttgac ctggattgaa tactggccta gagacacaac atgttcatcg 4980 tgtcaagcat ttttagctaa tttagatgaa tttgccgaag atatcttttt aaatggatgc 5040 taaaattcct gaagttcagc tgcatacagt ttgcacttat ggactcctgt tgttgaagtt 5100 cgtttttttg ttttcttctt tttttaaaca ttcatagctg gtcttatttg taaagctcac 5160 tttacttaga attagtggca cttgctttta ttagagaatg atttcaaatg ctgtaacttt 5220 ctgaaataac atggccttgg agggcatgaa gacagatact cctccaaggt tattggacac 5280 cggaaacaat aaattggaac acctcctcaa acctaccact caggaatgtt tgctggggcc 5340 gaaagaacag tccattgaaa gggagtatta caaaaacatg gcctttgctt gaaagaaaat 5400 accaaggaac aggaaactga tcattaaagc ctgagtttgc tttc 5444 10 222 DNA Homo sapiens 10 ctacctccaa ccatgggcct tttgggaata ctttgttttt taatcttcct ggggaaaacc 60 tggggacagg agcaaacata tgtcatttca gcaccaaaaa tattccgtgt tggagcatct 120 gaaaatattg tgattcaagt ttatggatac actgaagcat ttgatgcaac aatctctatt 180 aaaagttatc ctgataaaaa atttagttac tcctcaggcc at 222 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for testing a candidate drug for treatment or prevention of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) comprising administering the candidate drug to a Ccl2-deficient knockout mouse, a Ccr2-deficient knockout mouse and/or a Ccl2-deficient/Ccr2-deficient dual knockout mouse and analyzing at least one eye for development or regression of drusen and/or lipofuscin accumulation therein, for affect of the candidate drug on Bruch's membrane, affect on retinal degeneration, in at least one eye, and/or affect on choroidal neovascularization of at least one eye.
 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the candidate drug is nucleic acid.
 3. The method of claim 2 wherein the nucleic acid comprises a viral vector encoding wild-type Ccl2.
 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the nucleic acid comprises a viral vector encoding wild type Ccr2.
 5. The method of claim 1 wherein analyzing the at least one eye comprises determining amount and type of drusen or lipofuscin, extent of retinal degeneration, or neovascularization developed therein.
 6. The method according to claim 1 wherein the at least one eye is analyzed by ophthalmoscopy, angiography, histopathology or a combination thereof.
 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the candidate drug is administered to the mouse orally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, intravitreously, transsclerally or topically.
 8. The method of claim 7 wherein the candidate drug is administered topically to at least one eye of the mouse.
 9. The method of claim 1 wherein the candidate drug is a pharmaceutical compound, small molecule, peptide, antibody, antibody fragment, aptamer or nucleic acid.
 10. The method of claim 9 wherein the nucleic acid is an oligonucleotide or polynucleotide in either the sense or antisense orientation or an aptamer.
 11. A method of screening a test compound for potential utility for treatment of age-related macular degeneration, comprising: (a) providing a mouse comprising a disrupted Ccl2 and/or CCR2 gene, wherein the mouse is homozygous for the disrupted gene or genes, and wherein the mouse exhibits drusenand/or lipofuscin deposits, retinal degeneration, and/or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye at about nine to twenty-four months of age compared to a wild-type mouse that does not have the disrupted gene; (b) administering the test compound to the mouse; (c) determining the effect of the test compound on drusen, lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the mouse; and (d) correlating the effect of the test compound on drusen, lipofuscin accumulation, retinal degeneration, and/or choroidal neovascularization with a potential utility to treat age-related macular degeneration.
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the test compound is administered topically to at least one eye of the mouse.
 13. The method of claim 11 wherein the candidate drug is nucleic acid.
 14. The method of claim 11 wherein the nucleic acid comprises a viral vector encoding wild-type Ccl2.
 15. The method of claim 11 wherein the nucleic acid comprises a viral vector encoding wild type Ccr2.
 16. The method of claim 11 wherein analyzing the at least one eye comprises determining amount and type of drusen or lipofuscin, retinal degeneration or neovascularization developed therein.
 17. The method according to claim 11 wherein the at least one eye is analyzed by ophthalmoscopy, angiography, histopathology, mass spectometry or a combination thereof.
 18. The method of claim 11 wherein the candidate drug is administered to the mouse orally, intravenously, intraperitoneally, intravitreously, transsclerally or topically.
 19. The method of claim 18 wherein the candidate drug is administered topically to at least one eye of the mouse.
 20. The method of claim 11 wherein the candidate drug is a pharmaceutical compound, small molecule, peptide, antibody, antibody fragment, aptamer or nucleic acid.
 21. The method of claim 13 wherein the nucleic acid is an oligonucleotide or polynucleotide in either the sense or antisense orientation or an aptamer.
 22. A Ccl2-deficient/CCR2-deficient dual knockout mouse.
 23. The method of claim 7 wherein the candidate drug is administered intraviteously by injection or by sustained delivery implant, to at least one eye of the mouse.
 24. The method of claim 7 wherein the candidate drug is administered transsclerally to at least one eye of the mouse.
 25. The method of claim 11 wherein the test compound is administered intravitreously by injection or by sustained delivery implant, to at least one eye of the mouse.
 26. The method of claim 11 wherein the test compound is administered transsclerally to at least one eye of the mouse.
 27. The method of claim 18 wherein the candidate drug is administered intravitreously by injection or by sustained delivery implant to at least one eye of the mouse.
 28. The method of claim 18 wherein the candidate drug is administered transsclerally to at least one eye of the mouse.
 29. A method of monitoring the expression of a Ccr2 gene in at least one eye of a Ccr2−/− mouse comprising (1) introducing a plurality of stem cells obtained from a wild type mouse into the Ccr2−/− mouse to obtain a transplanted mouse, wherein said stem cells express wild type Ccr2; (2) observing at least one eye of the transplanted mouse for the effect of the wild type Ccr2 gene expression on drusen or lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the transplanted mouse.
 30. The method of claim 29 wherein the wild type Ccr2 gene is introduced by adoptive transfer or following bone marrow ablation of the Ccr2−/− mouse.
 31. A method of monitoring the effects of expression of a Ccl2 gene in at least one eye of a Ccl2−/− mouse comprising (1) introducing a plurality of stem cells obtained from a wild type mouse into the Ccl2−/− mouse to obtain a transplanted mouse, wherein said stem cells express wild type Ccl2; (2) observing at least one eye of the transplanted mouse for the effect of the wild type Ccr2 gene expression on drusen or lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the transplanted mouse.
 32. The method of claim 31 wherein the wild type Ccl2 gene is introduced by adoptive transfer or following bone marrow ablation of the Ccl2−/− mouse.
 33. A method of monitoring the effects of expression of a Ccl2 gene, Ccr2 gene or both in at least one eye of a Ccl2 deficient, Ccr2 deficient mouse comprising (1) introducing a plurality of stem cells obtained from a wild type mouse into the Ccl2 deficient, Ccr2 deficient mouse to obtain a transplanted mouse, wherein said stem cells express wild type Ccl2 and Ccr2; (2) observing at least one eye of the transplanted mouse for the effect of the wild type Ccl2 and/or Ccr2 gene expression on drusen or lipofuscin deposition, retinal degeneration, or choroidal neovascularization in at least one eye of the transplanted mouse.
 34. A method of identifying mutations in the Ccl2 gene, Ccr2 gene, Ccl2 promoter, Ccr2 promoter, Ccl2 enhancer, or combinations thereof comprising (1) obtaining an AMD DNA library or genomic DNA from a blood sample of an AMD patient; (2) screening the AMD DNA library or genomic DNA for sequences that hybridize under high stringency conditions to a wild type Ccl2 gene , Ccr2 gene; the ccl2 promoter, the Ccr2 promoter, or the Ccl2 enhancer and (3) sequencing the sequences that hybridize to determine the identity of any mutations contained therein.
 35. An expression vector comprising SEQ ID NO.
 9. 36. An expression vector comprising SEQ ID NO.
 10. 37. A method for screening for mutations that potentially cause or affect the development of AMD in a human comprising (1) obtaining an AMD DNA library or genomic DNA from a blood sample of an AMD patient; (2) screening the AMD DNA library or genomic DNA for sequences that hybridize under high stringency conditions to a wild type C5 receptor gene or C5a receptor gene; (3) sequencing the sequences that hybridize to determine the identity of any mutations contained therein.
 38. A method of treating or preventing AMD in a human comprising administering a nucleic acid encoding a wild type human Ccr2 gene, wild type Ccl2 gene or both to at least one eye of the human, wherein the nucleic acid is operably linked to a promoter, or a small molecule that promotes the function of human Ccr2 or Ccl2, and wherein said nucleic acid is expressed in at least one eye. 